Einstein equation vacuum energy

The amount of energy created can be calculated with Einsteins equation, E = mc. In the equation, mass is multiplied by the speed of light in a vacuum squared. The speed of light is a huge number, and its square is even bigger. Consequently,... 

In general, theory is a word with which most scientists are entirely comfortable. A theory is one or more rules that are postulated to govern the behavior of physical systems. Often, in science at least, such rules are quantitative in nature and expressed in the form of a mathematical equation. Thus, for example, one has the theory of Einstein that the energy of a particle, E, is equal to its relativistic mass, m, times the speed of light in a vacuum, c, squared,... 

We will describe here the current status of the supernova research and outline ongoing projects to distinguish between a cosmological constant or a vacuum density contribution to the energy-momentum tensor in the Einstein equation. 

Almost sci-fi consequences of such an extreme portrait could be read as follows. If the upper comer would consist of pure energy, E, in an infinite entropy state, and the right bottom comer of unadulterated matter, m, the adjacent right side of the triangle is Justifiable within the Einstein equation, m/E s Po So (i.e., characterized by the values of po and So as the permeability and permittivity of vacuum, which may predicate certain stmcture of our Universe ). 

For matter (non-relativistic matter often called dust ), p p, so that p/po = (ao/a)3. In contrast, for radiation (relativistic particles) p = pi3, so that p/po = (ao/a)4. Another interesting case is that of the energy density and pressure associated with the vacuum (the quantum mechanical vacuum is not empty ). In this case p = —p, so that p = po- This provides a term in the Friedmann equation entirely equivalent to Einstein s cosmological constant A. More generally, for p = wp, p/po = (ao/a)3(1+w Allowing for these three contributions to the total energy density, eq. 2.9 may be rewritten in a convenient dimensionless form... 

The masses of atomic nuclei can be determined by mass-spectrometers or from nuclear reaction and decay energies. According to Einstein s theory of relativity, the energy ( ) and mass (m) are related by equation E = m( , where c is the speed of light in vacuum. The binding energy is the equivalent mass, obtained by subtracting the mass of the nucleus from the sum... 

When a coherent laser field with average incident energy density W and frequency co interacts with a collection of N two-level atoms in ordinary vacuum, the steady state behavior of the system is governed by the well-known Einstein rate equations. These equations implicitly make use of the smooth nature of the vacuum density of states = o l 7t c ) in the vicinity of the atomic transition frequency co coq. In steady state equilibrium, the ratio of the number of excited atoms N2 to the total number of atoms is given by (Laudon, 1983)... 

B is called the Einstein coefficient for absorption. Because each transition from to Wb removes an amount of energy hvba from the radiation, the sample must absorb energy at the rate Bp(vba)Nahvba- Equation (5.3) often is presented without the factors f and n so that it refers to a sample in a vacuum. 

When a surface is bombarded with x-rays an electron may absorb all the energy of a photon and be able to escape the solid. The kinetic energy of that electron reflects the energy of the photon and, more importantly the BE of the electron [68]. The kinetic energy Ekin of such an electron with respect to the vacuum level is derived from Einstein s equation for the photoelectric effect [67]. 

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