Disinfectant animal studies

Comparative Toxicokinetics. No studies were located in which toxicokinetics of chlorine dioxide or chlorite were examined in humans. Chlorine dioxide is used as a drinking water disinfectant and readily forms chlorite (CIO2 ) in aqueous environments. Therefore, humans would be most likely to encounter chlorine dioxide or chlorite via the oral exposure route. Currently, available toxicokinetic information is restricted to animal studies. Additional studies could be designed to examine toxicokinetics in humans orally exposed to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. Results of human and animal studies could then provide a basis for development of PBPK models for species extrapolation. 

As seen from the data, water disinfected with chlorine can have a complex mixture of lipophiles and hydrophiles. The lipophilic THMs can facilitate the absorption of the hydrophilic haloacetic acids, haloace-tonitriles and haloketones. An analogy between the reproductive toxicity and carcinogenicity of DBPs can be drawn. Though no single chlorinated byproduct studied appears to be carcinogenic, there is evidence from animal studies that DBP mixtures are carcinogenicJ4°l... 

Many laboratory animal studies have been carried out on the liver toxicity of halogenated hydrocarbon mixtures, with most of these devoted to the potentiation of carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity. Other studies have included heavy metals, disinfection by-products, and simulated polluted groundwater. The following points reference these studies ... 

The use of AAAs as feed supplements appears an attractive approach either in itself or in combination with pro-, pre- and synbiotics, but the lack of animal feeding studies in which the efficacy of this approach could be determined makes it difficult to assess to what extent a two-barrier (targeting control at both the stomach and intestinal level) approach is commercially feasible. Also, since the viability of probiotics may also be affected by the use of AAA to increase the disinfection activity of the stomach, probiotics may need to be formulated in a way that protects them during stomach transfer. However, its potential should be determined in future research. 

The use of disinfectants such as triclosan and quaternary ammonium compounds and triclosan in homes and hospitals also leads to an enhanced selection for antibiotic-resistant bacteria (Russell, 2000 Kiicken et al., 2000 McMurray et al., 1998). Besides introducing resistance to bacteria, some antibiotics can also impose other effects. For example, a recent study by Vehcer et al. (2004) reported an intriguing association between cumulative exposure to all classes of antibiotics and breast cancer. Floroquinolones have also been imphcated in inducing tensions in the cartilage of immature animals (Hunt et al., 2002) and are generally deemed unsuitable for pediatric use. However, their presence in the environment can inadvertently introduce them to such susceptible individuals. 

Cages, racks, and other equipment must be capable of regular, easy cleaning. The use of disinfectants and pesticides should be avoided, particularly where they may come in contact with the animals, since such biologically active compounds may affect the study results. More detailed information regarding animal husbandry management and procedures can be found in the scientific literature, animal welfare publications, and official documents of the GLP. 

Chloroform, dichloroacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid are disinfection byproducts of water chlorination. In a study of laboratory rats it was shown that both dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid increase the renal toxicity of chloroform in test animals J10l... 

A number of chemicals have been proposed to induce leukoderma by both human and animal in vivo studies, and also by experimental in vitro work (Table 7). The largest and best-studied group of chemicals are derivatives of phenol and catechol (Fig. 1). Hydroxylation of the 4-(para)-position and substitution of a non-polar alkyl side group in the i-position has been observed to increase effectiveness for depigmentation (Riley 1969). Alkyl phenols are used in the industrial setting as antioxidants or rust inhibitors. In commercial uses, they may be found in deodorants, disinfectants, germicides, insecticides, motor oils, oil additives, de-emulsifiers, paints, photographic chemi-... 

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