Darwin Rise

The much-closer Moon would have had a greater influence on the tidal rise and fall of the oceans. At the moment, the mid-ocean tidal rise and fall far removed from the land masses is of order 1 m but if the Moon had been formed at a distance of around 40 000 km the tidal variation would have been of the order 100-1000 m. Large regions of the Earth s surface would have had a refreshed water supply every 4 h in the extreme cases of the model. Only well inland on the early land masses would there have been a dry environment, perhaps with fresh water replenishment. The early ideas of Darwin called for a Tittle warm pool to act... 

On Laplace, see Robert Fox, "The Rise and Fall of Laplacian Physics," HSPS 4 (1974) 89136 and on Cuvier, see Toby A. Appel, The Cuvier-Geoffroy Debate French Biology in the Decades Before Darwin (Oxford Oxford University Press, 1987). 

Many genotypes give rise to the same phenotype. In addition, different phenotypes are often not distinguished by selection because they have approximately the same fitness. In cases of neutrality, populations may drift randomly through the set of neutral variants instead of improving fitness through adaptive selection. This fact has been pointed out with remarkable clarity by Charles Darwin in his Origin of Species (Darwin, 1859) ... 

Darwin s theory of natural selection and theories derived thereof explaining the processes of natural evolution had given rise to a dogma of adaptationist arguments about most biological variations. The first major deviation from such adaptationist arguments became necessary to explain the observations made at the molecular level. 

It is obvious that such a ruthless all-or-none decision could neither be a consequence of random production nor result from interactions as they are responsible for chemical equilibrium, which always settles on finite concentration ratios. It is indeed the peculiar mechanism of the reproduction process far from equilibrium that accounts for the fact of survival, and this mechanism is even active when the competitors are degenerate in their selective values, that is, if they are neutral competitors. In this limiting case, considered to be very important for the evolution of species, Darwin s principle indeed reduces to the mere tautology survival of the survivor. Nevertheless, there are, even here, systematic quantitative regularities in the way that macroscopic populations of wild types rise and fall in a deterministic manner (as far as the process, not the particular copy choice, is concerned), which make it anything but a trivial correlation. This case of neutral selection has been called non-Darwinian. It should be emphasized, however, that Darwin was well aware of this possibility and described it verbally in a quite adequate way. The precise formulation of a theory of neutral selection, which then allows us to draw quantitative conclusions on the evolution of species is an achievement of the second half of this century. Kimura [2] has pioneered this new branch of population genetics. 

Some volcanic centers, however, are better explained by either local melting anomalies (Hofmann 1997), comparatively broad upwellings associated with plate-scale flow (e.g., Darwin and African Rises Sleep 1990), or a plume of shallow origin (e.g., Tahiti Steinberger 2000). In order to determine the plume flux from the deep mantle, the proportion of the ocean island hotspots that are derived from the CMB, as well as the number of plumes beneath continental regions (e.g., Ritter et al. 2001), must be better constrained. 

The concept of evolution, the idea that some species might give rise to other, new species, was on the minds of men some time before Charles Darwin proposed his own particular theory as to their origin (Bowler, 2009). Darwin began his On the Origin of Species with these words ... 

Including also the next term of the expansion, Eq. (2.88), gives rise to additional operators including the mass-velocity, Darwin and one-electron spin-orbit operators, which can be used in perturbation theory calculations of relativistic corrections to the non-relativistic results of the Schrodinger equation and molecular properties. However, the expansion is based on the assumption that the scalar potential r) is small, which is not fulfilled for the inner electrons of heavy atoms, because close to the nucleus they are exposed to the strong Coulomb potential of the nucleus. For this situation the expansion is then no longer valid. Alternative expansions exist, which circumvent this... 

Stapleton, Darwin H. The Rise of Industrial Research in Cleveland, 1870-1930, In Beyond History of Science Essays in Honor of Robert E. Schofield, edited by Elizabeth Garber, 231-45. Bethlehem, Pa. Lehigh University Press, 1990. 

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