Crust rocks

Table 2.1. Concentrations of trace elements in the earth s crust, rocks, and world soils ... 

Global extent of arid and semi-arid soils (km2) based on the Soil Taxonomy system) (after Monger et al., 2004). Concentrations of trace elements in the earth s crust, rocks and world soils3. 

Rock Types. Associated Minerals and Their Uses Minerals are the basic building blocks of all rock ty pes found in the earth s crust. Rocks are classified into three broad categories igneous, seilimenwn. and mewmorphic. 

The reservoir representing the land (2) is defined as the amount of P contained in the upper 60 cm of the soil. This rather narrow definition of the land reservoir is made because it is through the upper portions of the soil system that the major interactions with the other P reservoirs occur. Specifically, most plants receive their nutritive P needs from the upper soil horizons and the return of P to the soil system by the decomposition of plant matter is also concentrated in this upper soil zone. Similarly, the major interactions with the atmosphere, ground-waters, and rivers occur near the soil surface. And, finally, phosphate in the form of fertilizer is applied directly to the soil surface. Thus, in attempting to represent the land and its interaction with other reservoirs, the surface soil horizon most directly interacts with all components and best represents the d)mamical nature of this reservoir. Phosphorus in soils deeper than 60 cm and in crusted rocks is included in the sediment reservoir (1). This reservoir accounts for all of the particulate P that exchanges with the other reservoirs only on very long time-scales. 

In other words, at the Moho the crack system integrity is annihilated and the global hydraulic permeability of the crust is lost (Nikolaevskiy, 1979). Then the transition (phase or chemical) from the crust rock, saturated with water vapor, to "dry" rocks, (Bott, 1971), or with juvenile waters of the upper mantle becomes possible. 

The difference in the crust thickness is explained here by the dependency of the dislocation plasticity (Figure 3) on two parameters - pressure and temperature - and by corresponding changes of the crust rocks into a mantle type. 

Silicon, Si 28.086 4 Nonmetal, 2nd most abundant metal in Earth s crust. Rock constituent. Used in semiconductors... 

ABSTRACT The question why our Earth s crust is not quiet has been asked by many people. Many answers or hypotheses to the question have been proposed over last several thousand years. The author has put forward a hypothesis of originality to answer the question. His hypothesis is that there is a thin spherical gas layer between the crust and mantle. It is of a thickness from several hundred meters to few kilometers. It separates and protects the cold crust rocks and the hot mantle and core materials. Leak, migration and expansion of the highly compressed and dense gas along deep faults and orogens in the crust into the middle and upper crust rocks cause the crust unstable. The physical and mechanical interactions and/or chemical reactions between the gas and the crustal rocks cause crustal unstable phenomena including earthquakes, volcanos, landslides and tsunamis. 

The mantle and core materials are substantially different from the crust rocks (Figures 2 and 3). They have extremely high temperature, pressure and density. The mantle rocks may be partially melted. The upper mantle temperature can be about... 

The thin spherical gas layer is an ideal foundation footing to flexibly support and uplift the spherical crust rocks and to balance the crust rock weight. It is also an ideal insulation layer to prevent the crust rock from melting by the hot mantle materials and also to prevent the heat of the mantle and cores from leaking into the crust rocks and the atmosphere. As a result, the mantle and cores can keep their hot temperatures for millions to billions years. 

These temperature phenomena and facts and regularities for the continental grounds, the atmospheric air and the oceanic seawater can demonstrate that the temperature changes are dominantly controlled by the heat from the Sun and the stable temperatures are controlled by the constant heat from the interior of the Earth. Such results can demonstrate that there is a mechanism between the crust and the mantle to keep the heat transfer from the hot mantle materials to the crust rock masses uniformly and constantly. This mechanism is the thin spherical gas layer as a heat insulation seam between the crust and mantle. 

It can be argued that the presence of a thin spherical gas layer beneath the continental and oceanic crust rocks can make them to become a floating mass balanced by the downward gravity and the dense gas upward expanding pressure in an equilibrium state at present. Floating on the gas layer, the crusts can more easily move along the hoop direction of the Earth s ground surface. 

He has further used this gas hypothesis and investigated the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake (M9.0) and many other earthquakes. He has obtained the same finding that these earthquakes were logically and consistently explained with the gas hypothesis. He has further studied many other Earth s phenomena such as volcanos and tsunamis. Eventually by induction, he has rendered the cause general that there is a thin spherical gas layer beneath the crust rocks and above the hot mantle materials. 

The Earth produces gases in the mantle and core and the gases are trapped by the lower crust rocks. They form an overall stable and equilibrium system. The stress equilibrium and deformation com-patibiUty of the spherical gas layer and its upper spherical crustal rocks can be occasionally, temporarily and periodically broken at different locations due to both the increase in the gas mass with time and the hoop and radial irregularities of the crustal rocks. The gases can then leak and escape the trap and migrate into the middle and upper crustal rocks. Hence the Earth s crust is active and cannot be quiet all the time. 

Table 13.18. Deposits depth location Depth location in the Earth s crust Rock familly Surface (e.g., lava flows, volcanoes)...

Strictly speaking, a mineral is a substance of inorganic origin with definite chemical composition, which is found in the earth s crust. Rocks are naturally occuring mixtures of minerals. With few exceptions, minerals possess an internal ordered arrangement of their constituent atoms or groups of atoms, that is, they are crystalline. Some lack any ordered internal structure and are said to be amorphous. 

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