Combined solar system

We might as well attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar system, or to annihilate one already in existence, as to create or destroy a particle of hydrogen. All the changes we can produce consist in separating particles that are in a state of combination, and joining... 

Figure 1.4 shows the local Galactic abundances of isobars, based on a combination of elemental and isotopic determinations in the Solar System with data from... 

Fig. 5.26. Nucleosynthesis products from SN la (Fig. 5.25) and SNII (Fig. 5.12) combined in a ratio of 1 10, compared to Solar-System abundances. (A slightly higher ratio of 1 7 gives optimal fit to elemental, as opposed to individual nuclidic abundances.) Dominant isotopes of multi-isotope elements are circled. Adapted from Tsujimoto (1993).

When the elements are ejected from the stars where they were produced, they are in the gas phase. Subsequently, they combine in various chemical compounds and most condense as solids. The nature of those compounds and their behavior in the various environments encountered on their way to becoming part of the solar system can, in principle, be determined from the basic chemical properties of the elements. Evaporation and condensation are also important in the solar system and have played a defining role in determining the properties of planets, moons, asteroids, and the meteorites derived from them, comets, dust... 

Several isotope systems indicate that CAIs are the oldest objects to have formed in the solar system. Cosmochemists have adopted their formation age as the age of the solar system. Based on a combination of data from the Pb-Pb and 182H-182W systems (see below), we assign an age for the CAIs of 4568.2 0.5 Ma. To this precise age, we must add an absolute uncertainty of -0.2% (9 Myr at the age of the solar system) because of... 

Ices formed as mantles on silicate grains in interstellar space, trapping noble gases and providing sites for the synthesis of organic compounds. As the solar system formed, these ices were vaporized, particularly in the warmer regions near the Sun. Water ice recondensed outside the snowline and combined with rocky material and surviving interstellar material to form planetesimals. 

Fig. 4. Combined solar climate heating and cooling system...

Jupiter and Uranus are outer planets composed mainly of gases. Jupiter s atmosphere contains reddish-brown clouds of ammonia. Uranus has an atmosphere made up mainly of hydrogen and helium with clouds of water vapor. This combination looks greenish to an outside observer. In addition, Mars has an atmosphere that is 95% carbon dioxide, and Venus has a permanent cloud cover of sulfur dioxide that appears pale yellow to an observer. Mercury has no permanent atmosphere. Saturn has 1 km thick dust and ice rings that orbit the planet. The eight planets in our solar system are diverse, each having different chemical compositions within and surrounding the planets. Out Earth is by far the friendliest planet for human existence. 

IPCC International Panel on Climate Change ISCCS Integrated solar combined cycle system... 

Only for the 7Li isotope is cosmic-ray production not the source of most of the nuclei. The cosmic rays produce 7Li/6Li in a ratio near 2, with exact details depending on the energy spectrum assumed for the unseen low-energy cosmic rays but in the solar system that ratio is 12.5. The cosmic rays are the source of 6Li, which means they are the source of only about 1/6 of the 7Li. The remainder is a combination of Big-Bang relic plus production of 7Li in AGB stars. But 6Li, which is produced neither in stars nor Big Bang is entirely the result of cosmic-ray interactions in the interstellar medium. 

The astrophysical models of protoplanetary disks based on optical observations and laboratory experiments and meteoritic measurements provide the basis for theories of nebular evolution. The best and most precise relevant measurements are from meteoritic analysis. Meteorites from the Asteroid Belt of our Solar System are the best record of the evolution of the solar nebula from a gas-dust mixture to an organized planetary system. The addition of cometary and solar-wind sample analysis complement these data. Combination of fundamental laboratory-based experiments and modeling efforts has led to a highly resolved understanding of the chemical conditions and processes in the primordial solar nebula (see Chapter 6). In this chapter an overview of recent advances in our understanding of the chemical and isotopic evolution of the early Solar System and protoplanetary disks is presented. 

Covalent compounds make up the bulk of chemical compounds known to man, but they only a make-up a small percentage of the chemical compounds found on earth and earthly like planets, and virtually most solar systems. As previously stated, there are about 200,000 ionic compounds known to man, with a potential of another 100,000 left undiscovered throughout the universe however, covalent compounds number in the millions. For example, currently there are 16,000,000 covalent compounds known to man (as of 2003). The possible number of covalent compounds is practically endless, as the combination of these compounds is virtually infinite. 

Guided by early compilations of the cosmic abundances as reflected in solar system material (e.g., Suess and Urey, 1956), Burbidge cr a/. (1957) and Cameron (1957) identified the nuclear processes by which element formation occurs in stellar and supernova environments (i) hydrogen burning, which powers stars for —90% of their lifetimes (ii) helium burning, which is responsible for the production of and the two most abundant elements heavier than helium (iii) the a-process, which we now understand as a combination of... 

---