Charge extraction enhancing

Mixtures of carriers (ionic additiues). Cotransport of opposite-charged ions is the most obvious way to maintain electroneutrality, but alternative means may be explored as additives to LM. In recent years, many studies have been conducted which examine the use of anionic membrane additives for maintenance of electroneutrahty at cation transport [65, 84-89]. The anionic additives are typically fipophific carboxylic, phosphoric, or sulfonic acids. Cation or neutral macrocychc carriers coupled with anionic additives result in a synergistic transport of cations which exceeds that accomplished by each component individuaUy. This synergism was demonstrated in Ref. [90]. The authors observed a 10- to 100-fold enhancement of copper extraction. Enhanced extraction is achieved by adding the anionic group to the cation coordination macrocycle. 

Enhancing Charge Extraction at Electrodes and Tuning Energy Alignment... 

In PSCs, a barrier height of several tens of mV may cause severe charge accumulation. Ohmic contacts can be formed at both electrodes by inserting an appropriate interfacial layer between the active layer and electrodes to shift the WF of the electrodes to ideal values, from which the Voc can reach the upper limit, because the magnitude of Voc limited by the difference between the effective WF of the HCE and ECE in PSCs. Under the condition of Ohmic contact, the charge extraction at both electrodeswill be aceelerated and the recombination loss will be reduced benefiting from both effects, enhanced/sc is achievable. 

Indeed, it is practically mandatory to use ETL and HTL in organic optoelectronic devices because the interlayer can enhance the charge extraction and enable the use of a wider range of materials as electrodes. In this chapter, I will first discuss solution-processed metal oxides as ETL and HTL and then various hybrid metal oxide systems used to improve the performance of CTL further. 

Production of the color involves centrifugal separation of the biomass, cell breakage, and extraction. Use of a salt solution rather than water as an extraction medium increases stability of the color during extraction. Methods for partial exclusion of the polysaccharide from the color extract in order to enhance resolubilization of the dried color were developed. These processes include either microfiltration or co-precipitation of the polysaccharide with an added positively charged polysaccha-... 

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