Carbamates population level effects

It is very clear, therefore, that there have been many examples of neurotoxic effects, both lethal and sublethal, caused by pesticides in the field over a long period of time. Far less clear, despite certain well-documented cases, is to what extent these effects, especially sublethal ones, have had consequent effects at the population level and above. Interest in this question remains because neurotoxic pesticides such as pyre-throids, neonicotinoids, OPs, and carbamates continue to be used, and questions continue to be asked about their side effects, for example, on fish (Sandahl et al. 2005), and on bees and other beneficial insects (see, for example, Barnett et al. 2007). 

Speaking generally, many laboratory studies have shown behavioral effects in vertebrates or invertebrates or both exposed to organochlorine, carbamate, OP, pyre-throid, and neonicotinoid insecticides. However, the critical questions are (1) to what extent have these effects been demonstrated at normal levels of exposure in the field and (2), if such effects have occurred in the field, have there been knock-on effects at the population level These issues will be returned to in Section 16.7. 

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