Brain cellular organization

Animals with brains Multi-cellular organisms with a new type of compartment, a brain, connecting to all organs and activities... 

CELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN A PHARMACOLOGICAL VIEW OF NEURONS... 

Acid-base balance involves chemical and physiological processes responsible for the maintenance of the pH of body fluids at levels that allow optimal function of the whole individual. The ability for the body to regulate pH is critically important in maintaining the operation of many cellular enzymes and the function of vital organs, such as the brain and the heart [143],... 

Adults require 1-2 mg of copper per day, and eliminate excess copper in bile and feces. Most plasma copper is present in ceruloplasmin. In Wilson s disease, the diminished availability of ceruloplasmin interferes with the function of enzymes that rely on ceruloplasmin as a copper donor (e.g. cytochrome oxidase, tyrosinase and superoxide dismutase). In addition, loss of copper-binding capacity in the serum leads to copper deposition in liver, brain and other organs, resulting in tissue damage. The mechanisms of toxicity are not fully understood, but may involve the formation of hydroxyl radicals via the Fenton reaction, which, in turn initiates a cascade of cellular cytotoxic events, including mitochondrial dysfunction, lipid peroxidation, disruption of calcium ion homeostasis, and cell death. 

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