Biological molecules and structures

Dealing with biological or chemical structures can be intimidating because of the complicated nomenclature even though the basic constituents of the structure are just a few elements (typically C, H, O, N, P and S), there are many standard subunits formed by these atoms which have characteristic structures and properties. It is much more convenient to think in terms of these subunits rather than in terms of the constituent atoms, but this requires inventing a name for each useful subunit. We will use bold face letters for the name of various subunits the first time they are introduced in the text, hoping that this will facilitate the acquaintance of the reader with these structures. 

---

Biological molecules and structures are assumed to be fragile and sensitive. However, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules could be directly printed onto glass slides using commercially available inkjet printers for high-density DNA microarray fabrication (9,10). 

Epoxides are found in thousands of biological molecules and constitute vital functional entities. They can impart localized structural rigidity, confer cytotoxicity through their role as alkylating agents, or act as reactive intermediates in complex synthetic sequences. The widespread occurrence of epoxides is contrasted by only a handful of aziridines that are known to date. In this chapter we would like to introduce the different mechanisms by which enzymes produce epoxides. 

In biopharmaceutics, effective methods are strongly needed, not only to characterize the interactions of drugs and vehicles with biological structures in order to optimize pharmaceutical vehicle systems, but also to study the interactions between biological molecules and to investigate immunoreactions. 

In the postgenome era, proteomics has attracted much more attention due to its potential in understanding biological functions and structures at the protein level. The increased possibility of screening using proteomic techniques provides more comprehensive overview of the interaction of proteins, the interplay among processes, and the context in which a specific molecule or pathway may be operating in the mechanism of action of different antioxidants. 

This problem lies at the heart of all enzyme electrode manufacture. Proteins are biological molecules, and there is an apocryphal tale concerning Bragg when he was head of the Cavendish Laboratory, and Frances Crick told him he was going to study DNA crystal structure. Bragg s reply was gruff, and as it turned out quite apt, thats no... 

The three-center bonds represent — 70% of the total number of hydrogen bonds in the crystal structures surveyed (Thble 2.3). This is a significantly higher proportion than in the other biological molecules, and was attributed to proton deficiency, which occurs because the amino acids form zwitterionic crystal structures where the predominant hydrogen bonding is between the -NH3 and the... 

---