Atomic-level energy storage

Atomic-Level Storage At the atomic level, energy is stored in the orbital states, intermolecular and interatomic forces, and nuclear spin stales, hitermolecular forces become important for high-pressure gases, liquids, and solid states. 

The electrode materials currently being used in lithium ion batteries are based on lithium intercalation/de-intercalation reactions. Such reactions are inherently tied to crystallographic considerations. The insertion of high concentrations of lithium ions is usually limited to one lithium atom per host atom because hthium concentrations above this level result in phase transformations that may lead to the formation of irreversible phases. Recently, however, another approach has been devised in which the material is not constrained by intercalation and instead accomplishes energy storage through a process based on conversion reactions. 

While nanotechnology is a recent human discovery, Namre has been at it for nearly 4 bilHon years in s) tems described earlier in the present book. The ubiquitous conversion of ADP to ATP for storage of metabolic energy occurs through a biological nanomotor called ATP synthase. Another example is the membrane-embedded photosynthesis reaction center of purple baaeria. The ribosome is a highly structured machine that constructs proteins firom amino acids from a blueprint and its detailed, atomic-level structure is described later in this chapter. 

The higher energy yield per carbon atom from fatty acid compared with carbohydrate reflects its higher level of reduction, which consequently allows more oxidation. Thus, fat is logically the preferred storage molecule to carbohydrate. This is... 

The role of electron-electron interaction is one of the main topics of atomic, molecular physics and quantum chemistry. The normal helium atom is then naturally one of the most fundamental systems. Doubly excited states are as almost bound states of special interest since the role of the electron-electron interaction is important in describing energies and also autoionization rates. Dielectronic recombination processes where one of the two excited electrons falls down to a lower level while the other is ejected appears to be a fundamental process where electron-electron interaction plays a dominant role[6]. The recently built electron-cooler storage rings [7] have made it possible to study dielectronic recombination and thereby doubly excited states with high experimental accuracy. 

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