Alchemy definition

Sheppard, Harry J. "European alchemy in the context of a universal definition." In Die Alchemie in der europaischen Kulur- und Wissenschaftsgesischte, ed. Christoph Meinel, 13-17. Wiesbaden Harrassowitz, 1986. 

Time is a fundamental property of the physical world. Because time encompasses the antinomic qualities of transience and duration, the definition of time poses a dilemma for the formulation of a comprehensive physical theory. The partial elimination of time is a common solution to this dilemma. In his mechanical philosophy, Newton appears to resort to the elimination of the transient quality of time by identifying time with duration. It is suggested, however, that the transient quality of time may be identified as the active component of the Newtonian concept of inertia, a quasi occult quality of matter that is correlated with change, and that is essential to defining duration. The assignment of the transient quality of time to matter is a necessary consequence of Newton s attempt to render a world system of divine mathematical order. Newton s interest in alchemy reflects this view that matter is active and mutable in nature... 

Fernando, Diane. The dictionary of alchemy an A-Z of history, people, and definitions. London Blandford, 1998 reprint, London Vega, 2002. 192p. ISBN 1-8433-3618-9... 

The transition of empirical alchemy in 18th century Europe to scientific chemistry allowed the discovery of more and more new elements through the thirst for knowledge, intuition, patience, and even luck. Known materials such as gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead were "suspected" to be elements relatively early. Despite all the best efforts, these materials could not be broken down into further components, and hence their being elements was consistent with the then generally recognized definition of John Dalton, which was also staunchly supported by Antoine de Lavoisier. 

Chemistry as distinct from Alchemy and iatro-chemistry commenced with Robert Boyle (see plate 15), who first clearly recognised that its aim is neither the transmutation of the metals nor the preparation of medicines, but the observation and generalisation of a certain class of phenomena who denied the validity of the alchemistic view of the constitution of matter, and enunciated the definition of an element which has since reigned supreme in Chemistry and who enriched the science with observations of the utmost importance. Boyle, however, was a man whose ideas were in advance of his times, and intervening between the iatro-chemical period and the Age of Modem Chemistry proper came the period of the Phlogistic Theory — a theory which had a certain affinity with the ideas of the alchemists. 

The definition goes on to explain magic as, the use of means (as charms or spells) believed to have supernatural power over natural forces. 1 This would seem to fit most people s idea of magic, but this definition contains the disclaimer believed. This brings up the second essential problem. Modern science views magic as a superstition. This is in spite of the fact that magic, especially in the form of alchemy, is the ancestor of science and an accepted part of ancient Western culture. Also, many people in the West today and in other parts of the world continue to believe in and practice magic. 

The concept of the philosopher s stone which appears under many names, was that of the existence of some substance which should act as a ferment just as yeast acts upon dough, some mystic substance which added to baser metals should induce the transmutation of larger quantities of these to gold or to silver. An idea of this character is of very early origin, hut any definite ideas as to the nature of this substance are lacking, and in the later alchemists, they take an infinity of forms. The philosopher s stone first appears about the seventh century in literature, hut it may be earlier. In the early centuries of alchemy, there was also developed a mass of symbolism which lost nothing of complexity and obscurity with the development of alchemy. Thus, the egg, symbol of the round universe, or of eternity the egg of the philosophers consisted, like the physical universe, of four components, white and yolk a skin and shell. These four constituents again are sometimes said to typify the four metals which form the basis for transmutation, copper, tin, lead and iron. 

From the statement of the thirteenth century encyclopedists, and from Arabian writers also, we know that there existed much imposture and charlatanry among writers on alchemy, with their assumptions and claims as to gold making and the elixir of life. Concerning the dates or authorship of such alchemical writings we rarely have specific or definite information. Works of this character were not generally issued except under precautions to conceal the identity of the writer. 

Boyle was both an alchemist and chemist, but the researchers who followed him left alchemy behind as they pursued the new science of chemistry. Their experiments, which were now carefully written down and repeated, revealed new metals, like cobalt and nickel, and new gases, such as nitrogen and oxygen. In 1789, the French chemist Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier (1743-1794) offered the first modern definition of an element a chemical substance... 

Robert Boyle was educated in alchemy in the mid-1600s, but he published a book called The Skeptical Chemist that attacked alchemy and advocated using the scientific method. He is sometimes called the founder of modern chemistry because of his emphasis on proving a theory before accepting it, but the birth of modern chemistry is usually attributed to Lavoisier. Boyle rejected the 4 classical elements and proposed the modern definition of an element. Boyle s law states that gas volume is proportional to the reciprocal of pressure. 

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