Adaptation ecological principles

Computer models that simulate the dynamics of food webs might be used to extrapolate results of model ecosystem experiments to systems differing in size and ecological complexity. In principle, food-web models such as IFEM (Bartell et al. 1988), AQUATOX (Park 1999), and C-COSM (Traas 2004) can be adapted to do this, at least when detailed information on the ecology and ecotoxicology of the species and functional groups of concern is available. 

Because olfactory receptors can detect a wide array of structural types (in principle, any), the evolution of pheromones has been influenced primarily by ecological factors. First, certain types of chemical compounds can travel great distances and convey information in complex environments, including those that lack light. These compounds can be adapted, through evolution, to the medium within which the animal functions (e.g., water or air). Second, other types of chemicals are sufficiently stable that they can convey information for extended periods terrestrial species benefit most from these. Third, complex structures and/or mixtures of smaller structures can be information-rich and highly specific (i.e., immune to eavesdropping by other species because of the selective nature of olfactory receptors). Finally, products that are readily and naturally produced by... 

The possibility of contamination of the distribution system by microbial aftergrowth was suggested in the literature a.s far back as the 1920s [48] but the problem received more attention in the early 1970s when certain principles from microbial ecology were adapted and applied to drinking water distribution systems [16]. 

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