Vaccination, oral cattle

The nasal tissue is highly vascularized and provides efficient systemic absorption. Compared with oral or subcutaneous administration, nasal administration enhances bioavailability and improves safety and efficacy. Chitosan enhances the absorption of proteins and peptide drugs across nasal and intestinal epithelia. Gogev et al. demonstrated that the soluble formulation of glycol chitosan has potential usefulness as an intranasal adjuvant for recombinant viral vector vaccines in cattle [276]. 

The development of veterinary products for cattle, pigs, sheep, poultry and other food producing animals also includes residue testing of all new pharmaceutical products, including adjuvants or other excipients in vaccines. Residue safety studies address the potential risk to humans due to the consumption of food from treated animals. Accordingly, the test substances in these toxicity studies are applied orally. Residue depletion studies (pharmacokinetic studies) in the target species must be carried out to define the occurence, concentration and elimination of the substance and its metabolites in edible tissues, milk and eggs. 

Brucellosis is caused by three different gramnegative rods Brucella suis from pigs. B. abortus from cattle, and B. melitensis from sheep and goats. Infection is from handling infected animals or ingesting contaminated unpasteurized milk or cheese. The skin manifestations can include maculopapular lesions, petechiae, a chronic ulcer at the site of inoculation, and an urticarial eruption with subsequent vesiculopustules. Treatment is oral tetracycline plus intramuscular streptomycin. Prevention of brucellosis in humans is based on elimination of animal brucellosis. Immunization of animals is done using a live attenuated Brucella vaccine. 

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