Secondary motion wall effects

Detailed descriptions of the convective airflow patterns in cast replicas of the human respiratory tract during steady inspiration were given by Olson et al, Their results show that the effect of the larynx is such that flow patterns typical of smooth bifurcating tubes (secondary motions and high shear rates along the inside wall) do not occur until the lobar bronchi are reached. Turbulent eddies produced by flow separation below the larynx do not decay as rapidly as predicted by theory. Indeed, small eddies were observed as far down as the sublobar bronchi with 200-mt/s flows in the trachea. 

It is noted that efficiency has to be assessed for all considered measures. For instance investments into motion sensors may decrease needs for the restriction of physical access. The control of access by guards is often ineffective since they can be intentionally distracted by secondary attacks. For blast attacks the stand-off distance is a key parameter and can be hardly replaced by protective walls. However, quantification of the effects of protective measures may be difficult (e.g., estimating reduction of the probability of attack when safety guards patrol a bridge). 

A maximum intensity of XI on the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMl) scale and on the Environmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI 2007) was recorded in the epicentral area between Muzaffarabad and Balakot. Extremely severe damage and very important secondary environmental effects in the hanging wall adjacent to the trace of the causative fault plane are mainly due to near-fault strong motion and rupture directivity effects. 

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