Scanning electron microscopy fundamentals

Stratum corneum breaking strength decreases fourfold over the 0-100% RH range reaching a minimum at approximately 90% RH which is not lowered further by immersion in water. Of fundamental importance is the morphological location within the stratum corneum where failure occurs under a uniaxial load. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and conventional analysis of fractured samples indicate that the samples predominately fracture within the intercellular junctions rather than intracellularly (9). 

Dale E. Newbury, Fundamentals of Scanning Electron Microscopy for Physicist Contrast Mechanisms", SEM/1977/I, p. 553-568. 

Due to the fundamental importance of the adsorbed protein film, many methods have been used to characterize its nature. These methods include ellipsometry (3,A), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (5,6), multiple attenuated internal reflection spectroscopy (MAIR) (7,8) immunological labeling techniques (9), radioisotope labeled binding studies (j ), calorimetric adsorption studies (jj ), circular dichroism spectroscopy (CDS) (12), electrophoresis (j ), electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) (1 ), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (15,16,9), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (17-19). 

The study of nucleation is fundamental to the understanding of crystallization. Heterogeneous and homogeneous nucleation, are terms proposed [5] to differentiate nucleation within a receptive and an inert environment. In the context of electrocrystallization, the terms can be apphed to phase formation at preferred sites on the electrode surface and phase formation at surfaces without such sites, respectively. Figure 3.1 [6] illustrates heterogeneous nucleation and shows a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the nuclei of nickel formed on a scratched surface, and on indents. 

Fundamental for the characterization of polymer grafting surface are microscopy techniques, i.e. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Attenuated Total Reflection-Eourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR spectroscopy). 

Electronic microscopy (EM) plays a key role in the characterization of catalysts. The imderstanding of some aspects of these techniques becomes a sine qua non condition in catalysis [1]. Although the literature is relatively wide in fundamentals and applications [2], this chapter will present a brief summary on scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) and transmission electronic microscopy (TEM). 

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