Salamander toxins

Salamander toxins toxins secreted 1 the skin glands of Salamandra maculosa (European fire salamander) and Salamandra atra (alpine salamander). S.t. include the Salamander alkaloids (see), biogenic amines (tryptamine, S-hydroxytryptamine), and high M, substances that cause skin irritation and hemolysis. 

Significant concentrations of cyanotoxins have been found to accumulate in the tissues of macroinvertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans, presenting an indirect route of exposure for invertebrates, fish, and aquatic mammals at higher trophic levels (Negri and Jones 1995). In natural systems, mortality among benthic invertebrate herbivores is probably low because most bloom-forming bacteria are planktonic and only periodically come into contact with the benthos. Nevertheless, Kotak et al. (1996) determined that enhanced mortality of snails at the end of a bloom cycle in Canadian lakes was due to consumption of Microcystis cells that had formed a scum on the surface of macrophytes. Oberemm et al. (1999) found that aqueous microcystins, saxitoxins, and anatoxin-a all resulted in developmental delays in fish and salamander embryos. Interestingly, more severe malformations and enhanced mortality were observed when larvae were exposed to crude cyanobacterial extracts than to pure toxins applied at natural concentrations (Oberemm et al. 1999). 

Amphibians have mucus glands over their whole body to provide the mucus needed to keep their skin moist, and fields of granular glands that secrete alkaloid toxins. In addition to these general glands, salamanders possess glands... 

Many fish species, over 700 species worldwide, are either directly toxic or upon ingestion are poisonous to humans. A classic example is the toxin produced by the puffer fishes (Sphaeroides spp.) called tetrodotoxin (TTX). Tetrodotoxin is concentrated in the gonads, liver, intestine, and skin, and poisonings occurs most frequently in Japan and other Asian countries where the flesh, considered a delicacy, is eaten as fugu. Death occurs within 5 to 30 minutes and the fatality rate is about 60%. TTX is an inhibitor of the voltage-sensitive Na channel (like saxitoxin) it may also be found in some salamanders and may be bacterial in origin. 

Numerous species of amphibia (frogs, toads, newts, salamanders) produce poisons, such as bufotenin, in specialized skin secretory glands. Most of these animals pose no hazard to humans. However, some of the toxins are extremely poisonous. For example, Central American Indian hunters have used hunting arrows tipped with poison from the golden arrow frog. 

Samandarine is a relatively potent, centrally active neurotoxin with an injected lethal dose for a mouse of about 70 jag (see Ref. 5, and references therein). Samandarone is somewhat less toxic. Convulsions, respiratory failure, cardiac arrhythmias, and partial paralysis precede death. The fire salamander is sensitive to its own toxin. 

Found in the skin secretions of the red salamander (Pseudotriton ruber). A high-MW toxin ca. 200 000. Effects like tetrodotoxin qv. 

Salamander steroid alkaktids. Toxic compounds from skin gland secretions of salamanders, e, g. the fire salamander (Salamandra maculosa) and the alpine salamander (S. atra) that are produced as defensive substances against bacteria and fungi. About 10 of these toxins have been reported to date, they are all derived from 3-aza-A-homo-5/S-androstane. An important example is samandarine, which possesses an unusual ox-... 

Amphibian toxins a group of chemically very heterogeneous toxins (biogenic amines, peptics, alkaloids, steroids) produced by toads, salamanders, frogs (see Batrachotoxin) and newts (see Tarichatox-in). Pharmacologically, they include heart, muscle... 

Tarichatoxin the main toxin of North American salamanders (Taricha lorosa, T. rivularis). It is identical with Tetrt otoxin (see). 

Certain groups of secondary products protect animals against predation and microbial attack (Table 67). These substances may be either synthesized de novo in the animal body or are taken up with the food and are used directly or in a modified form. Some compounds are built, stored and secreted in special glands, e.g., the defense glands of insects and the skin glands of salamanders and toads. Others are constituents of blood or gut. Most of the toxins have a broad spectrum of activity against different kinds of predators or microorganisms. 

---