Reflection efficiency

For both geometries the diffraction efficiency approaches unity in value for Atransmission hologram exhibiting a periodic behavior (24,25) efficiency as a function of the grating strength ( ), whereas the reflection efficiency exponentially approaches unity. 

In healthy volunteers, high doses of both budesonide and fluticasone were readily absorbed after inhalation from a mete red-dose aerosol (2). Fluticasone is extensively metabolized by the liver, so measurable concentrations of parent drug in the systemic circulation reflect efficient absorption across the lung. Lower doses of these inhaled glucocorticoids also result in some systemic absorption, reflected in effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (3). 

Batch yield reflects efficiency of the operation. Because yield figures are the sum of numerous interactions, they fail in most cases to provide specific information about process performance and therefore must be used with caution in retrospective validation. In any event, this information should be collected, as it can contribute to further refinement of the yield limits that appear in the batch record. 

At a particular angle of diffraction j8, wavelengths for several orders will satisfy Eq. (17), but since these are widely separated in magnitude, a simple bandpass filter of colored glass or other materials can be used to block undesired orders. Normally a grating is used in first order, since the reflection efficiency is highest there. 

For a range of angles of incidence 0(=S0C) X-rays with energies up to a cut-off or critical energy are reflected efficiently whereas more energetic X-rays are not reflected. This is the basis for using a mirror as an efficient harmonic rejector when used with a crystal monochromator. 

Figure 5.14 Theoretical reflection efficiency as a function of the normalised glancing angle 8I8C for a perfectly smooth surface for selected values of pi6. The shape depends on the absorption of X-rays in the mirror. For no absorption the reflection coefficient is unity for 0< ldc 1. From Parratt (1954). Values of jH6 A, 0.0 B, 0.005 C, 0.01 D, 0.015 E, 0.02 F, 0.025 G, 0.03 H, 0.04 I, 0.06 J, 0.08, K, 0.10 L, 0.14.

Microbes and macrophytes often compete for available nutrients. In a nutrient-limited wetland, nutrients may be held tightly within the microbial biomass, reflecting efficient recycling of remineralized organic compounds. Environmental perturbations such as alterations in redox conditions may result in microbial mortality, resulting in a significant remineralization of nutrients. 

Replicas of gratings can be made successfully and can provide excellent resolution and high reflection efficiency and definition. They usually have somewhat higher scattered light properties than do originals. Most producers of replica gratings do not make the details of their processes available. One method, however, is to prepare a collodion solution, flow it over a grating, allow it to set, strip it off, and mount it on a permanent base. 

In all types of crystal spectrometers the reflection efficiency of the crystal and the resolution of the spectrometer dk/k are determined by the solid angle defined by the collimators or slit system and by the integral reflection coefficient R of the analyzing crystal. The integral reflection coefficient is given by... 

Therefore, the diffraction efficiency of transmission holography is decreased. The maximum diffraction efficiency of transmission holography is 6.25%. Since the component of and 1, is negligibly small, the refraction efficiency of reflection holography is higher. The theoretical maximum diffraction efficiency of phase holography is estimated to be 34%, and that of reflection efficiency 100%. Theoretical and diffraction efficiencies of various types of holography are shown in Table 5.2. 

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