Precious Stones Known Since Antiquity

Two gemstones, beryl and emerald, have been known since ancient times, the former yellow like gold the latter a lovely green. In the Old Testament, predous stones are mentioned in different contexts, as for example in the instructions for the High Priest s breastplate  

It is notable that the beryUium-contairring stones emerald and beryl were mentioned by name in these early times. PKny the Elder writes in the first century ad that beryl and emerald are closely related and of the same nature. 

In 1817, M. Fredric Gailliaud rediscovered the mines and found that they were almost in the same condition as when they were once closed down, with underground rooms, stopes, so big that hundreds of miners might have worked simultaneously. In 

Skilled alchemists early tried to make synthetic beryls and emeralds. In the so-called Stockholm Papyrus [15.1], descriptions are given for these syntheses. The Papyrus was found in Alexandria in the early years of the 19 century and is dated to the 3 or 4 centuries ad. Together with the so-called Leyden Papyrus, it is the only original document from this early period and of great value for the history of chemistry, especially from the beginning of alchemy. 

In the 16 century, the huge Spanish area in South and Central America was divided into two kingdoms - New Spain north of Panama with Mexico as the capital and Peru to the south with Lima as the capital. The former was rich in silver and gold, the latter in emeralds. In 1590, the priest Father Jose de Acosta described emeralds from 

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