Phosphorylation, adenosine glucose

Another enzyme used for the measurement of glucose is hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1) which catalyses the phosphorylation of glucose to produce glucose-6-phosphate with adenosine triphosphate as the phosphate donor and magnesium ions as an activator. The rate of formation of glucose-6-phosphate can be linked to the reduction of NADP by the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.49). This indicator reaction can be monitored spectrophotometrically at 340 nm or fluorimetrically ... 

Hydrolysis of ATP )delds adenosine diphosphate (ADP), an inorganic phosphate group (Pj), and energy (Figure 21.3). The energy released by this hydrolysis of ATP is then used to drive biological processes, for instance, the phosphorylation of glucose or fructose. 

Kinases are enzymes that transfer a phosphate group from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), or other trinucleotide, to a number of biological substrates, such as sugars or proteins. They are part of a larger family of enzymes known as group transferases, but are limited to phosphate transfers. A typical reaction catalyzed by a kinase (e.g., hexokinase) is the phosphorylation of glucose upon its entry into a cell... 

The modes of action for niclosamide are interference with respiration and blockade of glucose uptake. It uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in both mammalian and taenioid mitochondria (22,23), inhibiting the anaerobic incorporation of inorganic phosphate into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Tapeworms are very sensitive to niclosamide because they depend on the anaerobic metaboHsm of carbohydrates as their major source of energy. Niclosamide has selective toxicity for the parasites as compared with the host because Httle niclosamide is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Adverse effects are uncommon, except for occasional gastrointestinal upset. 

Figure 22.17 Summary of mechanisms to maintain the ATP/ADP concentration ratio in hypoxic myocardium. A decrease in the ATP/ADP concentration ratio increases the concentrations of AMP and phosphate, which stimulate conversion of glycogen/ glucose to lactic acid and hence ATP generation from glycolysis. The changes also increase the activity of AMP deaminase, which increases the formation and hence the concentration of adenosine. The latter has two major effects, (i) It relaxes smooth muscle in the arterioles, which results in vasodilation that provides more oxygen for aerobic ATP generation (oxidative phosphorylation). (ii) It results in decreased work by the heart (i.e. decrease in contractile activity), (mechanisms given in the text) which decreases ATP utilisation.

Activation of Gs or Gi proteins results in stimulation or inhibition, respectively, of adenylyl cyclase which catalyses the formation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) from ATP The cAMP binds to protein kinase A (PKA), which mediates the diverse cellular effects of cAMP by phosphorylating substrate enzymes, thereby increasing their activity. Among the responses mediated by cAMP are increases in contraction of cardiac and skeletal muscle and glycogenolysis in the liver by adrenaline (epinephrine). Because a single activated receptor can cause the conversion of up to 100 inactive Gs proteins to the active form, and each of these results in the synthesis of several hundred cAMP molecules, there is a very considerable signal amplification. For example, adrenaline concentrations as low as 10-10 M can stimulate the release of glucose sufficient to increase... 

In the presence of excess phosphohexose isomerase and glucose-6-phos-phate dehydrogenase the rate of reduction of TPN is proportional to the rate of cleavage of fructose diphosphate. For cases when small, quantities of fructose diphosphate must be used, a second spectrophoto-metric assay, in which fructose diphosphate is regenerated, has been proposed 20). Fructose 6-phosphate is phosphorylated with ATP and phosphofructokinase, and the adenosine diphosphate (ADP) produced is measured with phosphoenolpyruvate and lactic dehydrogenase ... 

Glucose and fructose are phosphorylated in the presence of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in a reaction is catalysed by hexokinase (HK) producing respectively, glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) and fructose-6-phosphate (F6P) ... 

The rate of D-glucosamine phosphorylation is about 70% of that for D-glucose phosphorylation. Free D-glucosamine and adenosine-5-tri-phosphoric acid disappear at similar rates in the presence of yeast hexokinase. ... 

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