Low-temperature characteristics of IPMCs

Among other benefits of the IPMC is the actuation capability within a wide temperature range. It was first shown by Shahinpoor et al. that IPMCs are capable of actuation in temperatures below 0°C [Shahinpoor et al. (1998)]. This is definitely a note-worthy phenomenon as water freezes below that temperature. 

As discussed in the previous sections, the hydrated cation migration under an applied electric field directly results in the deformation of the material. In fact, when ionomer (Nafion, Flemion) is dry, the interaction between the side chain groups and the cations is very strong and the ionic conductivity of the membrane is very small [Takeji et al. (1982)]. Conversely, when the membrane is hydrated, the interaction between the cations and the anions in the side chains is weakened and it results in bet- 

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