Hydride transfer reactions, NADH

If secondary isotope effects arise strictly from changes in force constants at the position of substitution, with none of the vibrations of the isotopic atom being coupled into the reaction coordinate, then a secondary isotope effect will vary from 1.00 when the transition state exactly resembles the reactant state (thus no change in force constants when reactant state is converted to transition state) to the value of the equilibrium isotope effect when the transition state exactly resembles the product state (so that conversion of reactant state to transition state produces the same change in force constants as conversion of reactant state to product state). For example in the hydride-transfer reaction shown under point 1 above, the equilibrium secondary isotope effect on conversion of NADH to NAD is 1.13. The kinetic secondary isotope effect is expected to vary from 1.00 (reactant-like transition state), through (1.13)° when the stmctural changes from reactant state to transition state are 50% advanced toward the product state, to 1.13 (product-like transition state). That this naive expectation... 

In the following year, Cleland and his coworkers reported further and more emphatic examples of the phenomenon of exaltation of the a-secondary isotope effects in enzymic hydride-transfer reactions. The cases shown in Table 1 for their studies of yeast alcohol dehydrogenase and horse-liver alcohol dehydrogenase would have been expected on traditional grounds to show kinetic isotope effects between 1.00 and 1.13 but in fact values of 1.38 and 1.50 were found. Even more impressively, the oxidation of formate by NAD was expected to exhibit an isotope effect between 1.00 and 1/1.13 = 0.89 - an inverse isotope effect because NAD" was being converted to NADH. The observed value was 1.22, normal rather than inverse. Again the model of coupled motion, with a citation to Kurz and Frieden, was invoked to interpret the findings. 

The catalytic effect of metal ions such as Mg2+ and Zn2+ on the reduction of carbonyl compounds has extensively been studied in connection with the involvement of metal ions in the oxidation-reduction reactions of nicotinamide coenzymes [144-149]. Acceleration effects of Mg2+ on hydride transfer from NADH model compounds to carbonyl compounds have been shown to be ascribed to the catalysis on the initial electron transfer process, which is the rate-determining step of the overall hydride transfer reactions [16,87,149]. The Mg2+ ion has also been shown to accelerate electron transfer from cis-dialkylcobalt(III) complexes to p-ben-zoquinone derivatives [150,151]. In this context, a remarkable catalytic effect of Mg2+ was also found on photoinduced electron transfer reactions from various electron donors to flavin analogs in 1984 [152], The Mg2+ (or Zn2+) ion forms complexes with a flavin analog la and 5-deazaflavins 2a-c with a 1 1 stoichiometry in dry MeCN at 298 K [153] ... 

Novel and efficient [2 - - 3] cycloaddition reactions of NADH analogues with Q derivatives rather than the hydride-transfer reactions occur in the presence of scandium triflate, Sc(OTf)3, in MeCN to afford the cycloadducts (142). When 1 -benzyl-4-tert-butyl-1,4-dihydronicotinamide (t-BuBNAH) is used as an NADH analogue in the Sc +-catalyzed reaction with Q, the crystal structure of the cycloadduct was determined successfully, as shown in Fig. 53 (142). 

The effects of Mg + on hydride transfer reactions from a typical NADH model compound, 1-benzyl-1,4-dihydronicotinamide (BNAH), to substrates are complex... 

Bronsted acid catalysis in electron transfer described in Section 1.3.1 has also been effective for redox reactions via the electron transfer step. As shown in the case of metal ion-catalyzed hydride transfer reactions (see above), hydride transfer reactions from an NADH analogue to /7-benzoquinones also proceed via Bronsted acid-catalyzed electron transfer [255, 256]. Since NADH and ordinary NADH model compounds are subjected to the acid-catalyzed hydration [98, 257, 258], an acid-stable NADH model compound, 10-methyl-9,10-dihydroacridine (AcrH2), was used as a hydride donor to / -benzoquinone (Eq. 24) ... 

Finally it was reasoned that if the mechanism of Eq. (4.11a) involved an electron transfer or a hydrogen-atom transfer from the NADH analog to the acridinium species, then such processes should surely occur in the system of Eq. (4.11b). The fact that this did not occur, in spite of the electron transfer being thermodynamically favorable, demonstrated the extreme propensity of the NADH/flavin system for hydride-transfer reaction. 

Figure 15.1. Reaction catalyzed by LDH and active site contacts in LDH. It sho A/s an A-side hydride transfer reaction from NADH to a substrate C=0 A/hich is accompanied by a proton transfer, either sequentially or simultaneously, from Hisl95. The 1,4...

The same mechanistic dichotomy for HAT reactions, one-step (concerted) HAT versus sequential (stepwise) electron and proton transfer (Scheme 2.1), is applied to hydride transfer reactions, one-step (concerted) hydride transfer versus sequential (stepwise) ET followed by proton-electron (or hydrogen) transfer.13,40 64 68 Such one-step versus multistep pathways have been discussed extensively in hydride transfer reactions of dihydronicotinamide coenzyme (NADH) and analogues, particularly including the effect of metal cations and acids, 69-79 because of the essential role of acid catalysis in the enzymatic reduction of carbonyl compounds by NADH.80 In contrast to the one-step hydride transfer pathway that proceeds without an intermediate, the ET pathway would produce radical cation hydride donors as the reaction intermediates, which have rarely been observed. The ET pathway may become possible if the ET process is thermodynamically feasible. 

Hydride transfer reactions from NADH analogues to high-valent metal-oxo species provide excellent opportunity to clarify such a mechanistic difference by comparing the hydride transfer reactions with those with /)-benzoquinone derivatives, which have been discussed in the previous section. A series of NADH analogues, 10-methyl-9,10-dihydroacridine (AcrH2) and its 9-subsituted derivatives (AcrHR R =... 

Linear correlations between hydride transfer reactions of NADH analogues with (L)FeIV(0)]2 f and CI4Q in Figure 2.14 imply that the hydride transfer mechanism of (L)FeIV(0)]2+ is virtually the same as that of C14Q." Although there is still debate on the mechanism(s) of hydride transfer from NADH analogues to hydride acceptors in terms of an ET pathway versus a one-step hydride transfer pathway, the ET pathway is now well accepted for hydride transfer from NADH analogues to hydride acceptors... 

Fig. 4 Reaction mechanism of dTDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase as proposed by Allard et al. [125], The first half of the reaction involves abstraction of a proton from the 4 hydroxyl group, and hydride transfer from C-4 to NAD. In the next step, a proton is removed from the C-5 atom of the sugar, and the C-6 hydroxyl group is protonated and eliminated as water. This yields the 4-keto-5,6-ene intermediate. The product is obtained after hydride transfer from NADH to carbon atom C-6 and protonation of carbon atom C-5...

Nature makes use of NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) as a cofactor for enantioselective biochemical hydrogenations, which are typical hydride-transfer reactions. Dihydropyridines and benzimidazolines derivatives are active hydride donors due to the presence of the nitrogen atom and the ability of the molecule to undergo aromatisation. Organocatalytic enantioselective reductions carried out using hydride donors has been studied, and effective reductions have been achieved with imidazoli-dinone organocatalysts, both with a,p unsaturated aldehydes and ketones. Generally, a stoichiometric quantity of reductant (Hantzsch ester 4) is required for these transformations (Scheme 18.5). 

HYDRIDE TRANSFER REACTIONS OF NADH/NAD MODEL AND RELATED SYSTEMS... 

Rhin(bpy)3]3+ and its derivatives are able to reduce selectively NAD+ to 1,4-NADH in aqueous buffer.48-50 It is likely that a rhodium-hydride intermediate, e.g., [Rhni(bpy)2(H20)(H)]2+, acts as a hydride transfer agent in this catalytic process. This system has been coupled internally to the enzymatic reduction of carbonyl compounds using an alcohol dehydrogenase (HLADH) as an NADH-dependent enzyme (Scheme 4). The [Rhin(bpy)3]3+ derivative containing 2,2 -bipyridine-5-sulfonic acid as ligand gave the best results in terms of turnover number (46 turnovers for the metal catalyst, 101 for the cofactor), but was handicapped by slow reaction kinetics, with a maximum of five turnovers per day.50... 

Isotope effects have been used to determine whether the hydride transfer from the enzyme cofactor nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NADH) (reaction (43)) takes place as a hydride ion transfer in a single kinetic step or in a multistep reaction via an uncoupled electron and hydrogen transfer. 

Hydride may be transferred from NADH to the carbonyl compound because of the electron releasing properties of the ring nitrogen this also results in formation of a favourable aromatic ring, a pyridinium system since the nitrogen already carries a substituent. The cofactor becomes oxidized to NAD+. The reaction is then completed by abstraction of a proton from water. 

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