Hybrid orbitals shapes

FIGURE 6.44 Exact and approximate representations of the hybrid orbital shapes. For each type of hybrid orbital shown the left column shows typical chemists sketches, the center column shows isosurfaces, and the right column shows contour plots. The top row are the sp hybrid orbitals, the middle row are the sp hybrid orbitals, and the bottom row are the sp hybrid orbitals. 

Figure 1.4 A comparison of unhybridized p and sp hybridized orbital shapes. The atomic nucleus is at the junction of the lobes in each case.

Figure 9.3 (a An atomic i orbital (yellow) and one atomic p orbital (blue) combine to form two sp hybrid orbitals (green). The realistic hybrid orbital shapes are shown first. The thinner representations are used to keep diagrams clear, (b) The 2s orbital and one of the 2p orbitals on Be combine to form two sp hybrid orbitals. Unoccupied orbitals are shown in white, (c) Like any two electron domains, the hybrid orbitals on Be are 180° apart, (d) The hybrid orbitals on Be each overlap with a singly occupied 3p orbital on a Cl atom. 

When elements in Period 2 form covalent bonds, the 2s and 2p orbitals can be mixed or hybridised to form new, hybrid orbitals each of which has. effectively, a single-pear shape, well suited for overlap with the orbital of another atom. Taking carbon as an example the four orbitals 2s.2p.2p.2p can all be mixed to form four new hybrid orbitals (called sp because they are formed from one s and three p) these new orbitals appear as in Figure 2.9. i.e. they... 

The concept of hybridization explains how carbon forms four equivalent tetrahedral bonds but not why it does so. The shape of the hybrid orbital suggests the answer. When an 5 orbital hybridizes rvith three p orbitals, the resultant sp3 hybrid orbitals are unsyimmetrical about the nucleus. One of the two... 

We saw in the last chapter how covalent bonds between atoms are described, and we looked at the valence bond model, which uses hybrid orbitals to account for the observed shapes of organic molecules. Before going on to a systematic study of organic chemistry, however, we still need to review a few fundamental topics. In particular, we need to look more closely at how electrons are distributed in covalent bonds and at some of the consequences that arise when the electrons in a bond are not shared equally between atoms. 

The promotion of electrons will occur if, overall, it leads to a lowering of energy by permitting the formation of more bonds. Hybrid orbitals are constructed on an atom to reproduce the electron arrangement characteristic of the experimentally determined shape of a molecule. 

FIGURE 3.16 Three common hybridization schemes shown as outlines of the amplitude of the wavefunction and in terms of the orientations of the hybrid orbitals, (a) An s-orbital and a p-orbital hybridize into two sp hybrid orbitals that >oint in opposite direc tions, forming a linear molecular shape, (b) An s-orbital and two p-orbitals can blend together to give three ip hybrid orbitals that point to the corners of an equilateral triangle, (c) An s-orbital and three p-orbitals can blend together to give four sp hybrid orbitals that point to the corners of a tetrahedron. 

Complexes of d- and /-block metals can be described in terms of hybridization schemes, each associated with a particular shape. Bearing in mind that the number of atomic orbitals hybridized must be the same as the number of hybrid orbitals produced, match the hybrid orbitals sp1d, sp fd , and sp d3f to the following shapes (a) pentagonal bipyramidal ... 

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Let s quickly review the shape of hybridized orbitals, sp, sp, and sp orbitals all have roughly the same shape, but they are different in size ... 

Any hybrid orbital is named from the atomic valence orbitals from which It Is constmcted. To match the geometry of methane, we need four orbitals that point at the comers of a tetrahedron. We construct this set from one s orbital and three p orbitals, so the hybrids are called s p hybrid orbitais. Figure 10-8a shows the detailed shape of an s p hybrid orbital. For the sake of convenience and to keep our figures as uncluttered as possible, we use the stylized view of hybrid orbitals shown in Figure 10-8Z). In this representation, we omit the small backside lobe, and we slim down the orbital in order to show several orbitals around an atom. Figure 10-8c shows a stylized view of an s p hybridized atom. This part of the figure shows that all four s p hybrids have the same shape, but each points to a different comer of a regular tetrahedron. 

Remember that the molecular shape ignores the lone pair. The hydronium ion has a trigonal pyramidal shape described by the three s p hybrid orbitals that form bonds to hydrogen atoms. 

Figure 7.10 Different types of hybridization and the resulting orbital shapes.

Figure 3.15 An sp hybrid orbital, (a) left, radial functions for the 2s and 2p atomic orbitals right, radial function for the sp hybrid orbital (b) left, the shapes of the 2s and 2p atomic orbitals as indicated by a single contour value right, the shape of the sp hybrid orbital as indicated by the same contour, (c) The shape of a surface of constant electron density for the sp hybrid orbital, (d) Simplified representation of (c). (Reproduced with permission from R. J. Gillespie, D. A. Humphreys, N. C. Baird, and E. A. Robinson, Chemistry, 2nd Ed., 1989, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.)...

The VSEPR notation for the Cl2F+ ion is AX2E3. According to Table 11.1, molecules of this type exhibit an angular molecular geometry. Our next task is to select a hybridization scheme that is consistent with the predicted shape. It turns out that the only way we can end up with a tetrahedral array of electron groups is if the central chlorine atom is sp3 hybridized. In this scheme, two of the sp3 hybrid orbitals are filled, while the remaining two are half occupied. 

Next we must select a hybridization scheme for the Br atom that is compatible with the predicted shape. It turns out that only sp3d hybridization will provide the necessary trigonal bipyramidal distribution of electron pairs around the bromine atom. In this scheme, one of the sp3d hybrid orbitals is filled while the remaining four are half-occupied. 

Figure 4.6 Relationships of idealized sd -1 -hybridized ML molecular shapes to simple polyhedra. Each panel shows the hybrid-orbital axes in dumbbell dz2 -like form embedded within the polyhedron, together with the associated allowed (no-hms-vertex) dispositions of ligands on the polyhedral vertices (with the unmarked metal atom occupying the polyhedral centroid in each case) (a) sd1 square, (b) sd2 octahedron, (c) sd3 cube, and (d) sd5 icosahedron.

Hybridization occurs during the formation of a chemical bond. It is not possible to occur in an individual atom. Hybrid orbitals play an important role in determining the geometric shape of a molecule. 

The shape of the CH4 molecule is tetrahedral. A tetrahedral orientation of equal bonds (which are formed from the overlap of the identical sp3 hybrid orbitals and the hydrogen Is orbitals) gives a bond angle of 109.5° (Figure 6). 

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