Group gambles

A number of decision-making studies in the 1960s showed that groups generally make riskier decisions than individuals (Stoner, 1961 Wallach et al., 1962). This is contrary to the common-sense belief that groups tend to be more conservative than their individual members. 

To compare the risk-taking of groups vs. individuals, researchers asked subjects to 

Form a group to discuss each choice on the questionnaire and arrive at a consensus. 

Not only were the group consensus decisions more risky than the average of the initial decisions but after the group discussions, the individual choices became more risky. This group process phenomenon is referred to as the risky shift (Kogan and Wallach, 1964). 

Group polarization. In some cases, risky means more extreme or opinionated. When team members discuss an issue the majority favors or opposes, they become more certain and confident in their viewpoint. This exaggeration of individual opinion as a result of group discussion is referred to as group polarization (Isenberg, 1986 Levine and 

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It is noteworthy that in this broader context of decision making, the conservative behavior of scientists who use conventions as if they were rules of nature constitutes a paradox. On the one hand, they usually demand odds overwhelmingly against the null hypothesis before concluding it is false, and therefore behave as a risk-aversive group reluctant to gamble personal and collective reputations. On the other, many behave as risk-takers and are often willing, collectively or individually, to loose major health and environmental risks upon the public. 

Gamble, D.S. and S.U. Khan (1985). Atrazine hydrolysis in soils Catalysis by the acidic functional groups of fulvic acid. Can. J. Soil Sci., 65 435 143. 

Rosenheck R, Perlick D, Bingham S, Liu-Mares W, Collins J, Warren S, Leslie D, Allan E, Campbell EC, Caroff S, Corwin J, Davis L, Douyon R, Dunn L, Evans D, Frecska E, Grabowski J, Graeber D, Herz L, Kwon K, Lawson W, Mena F, Sheikh J, Smelson D, Smith-Gamble V. Department of Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study Group on the Cost-Effectiveness of Olanzapine. 

Gamble, D.S. Potentiometric titration of fulvic acid equivalence point calculations and acidic functional groups. 

Gamble JF, Fellner W, Dimeo MJ. 1979. An epidemiologic study of a group of talc workers. Am Rev RespirDis 119 741-753. 

Fig. 9. Representation of the TiOy (110) surface. Binding of -OR groups (to represent either OH or OEt) is shown at both Ti sites and bridging oxygen vacancies. L. Gamble, L.S. Jung, and C.T. Campbell, Surface Science, v. 348 (1996). Reproduced by permission of Elsevier Publications.

Figure 9.18 Plasma diazepam levels 90 min after intramuscular injection by one doctor and several nurses, showing the importance of technique and site of injection, which was variable in the latter group (individual values horizontal lines denote average levels). Redrawn from J. W. Dundee, J. A. Gamble and R. A. Assaf, Lancet, 2, 1461 (1974) with permission.

Schnitzer (1969) and Gamble et al. (1970) postulated that two types of reactions are involved in metal-fulvic acid interactions, the most important one involving both phenolic OH and COOH groups. A reaction of lesser importance involved COOH groups only. The two reactions are ... 

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