Fowler reduction

Dihydropyridines are far more stable than the previously mentioned dihydropyridine isomers and have been used in numerous synthetic transformations. In particular, iV-alkoxycarbonyl-l,2-dihydropyridines, which can be obtained from the Fowler reduction of pyridines, are widely used. The use of phenyl chloroformate rather than ethyl or benzyl chloroformate in the Fowler reduction of 3-substituted pyridines, where the substituent is an electron-withdrawing group, was found to increase the yield and selectivity of the 3-substituted-l,2-dihydropyridine (Scheme 15) <20010L201>. 

Stamenkovic V, Fowler B, Mun BS, Wang G, Ross PN, Lucas CA, Markovic NM. 2007a. Improved oxygen reduction activity on Pt3Ni(lll) via increased surface site availabihty. Science 315 493-497. 

Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, Nathan DM. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002 346(6) 393 103. 

Volkow ND, Chang L, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Leonido-Yee M, Franceschi D, Sedler MJ, Gatley SJ, Hitzemann R, Ding YS, Logan J, Wong C, Miller EN (2001c) Association of dopamine transporter reduction with psychomotor impairment in methamphetamine abusers. Am J Psychiatry 755 377-382. 

G. J., Fowler, J. S., Leonido-Y ee, M., Franceschi, D., Sedler, M., Gatlcy, R., Hitzemann, R., 8c Ding, Y. S (2001). Association of dopamine transporter reduction with psychomotor impairment in methamphetamine abusers. American Journal of Psychiatry,... 

One of the more useful approaches to these intermediates was developed by Fowler [57], and involved sodium borohydride reduction of iV-carbalkoxypyridinium ions formed in situ from a substituted pyridine and a chloroformate ester. The simplest of these approaches uses A -benzyloxy 1,2-DHP (60) and methyl acrylate and yielded 61a (endo) and 61b (exp) after 1 week in a 9 1 ratio with 11% total yield (Scheme 4) [25]. 

Fowler P, Smith K, Young J, Jeffrey L, Kirkland D et al (2012) Reduction of misleading ( false ) positive results in mammalian cell genotoxicity assays. I. Choice of cell type. Mutat Res 742 11-25... 

In electrochemical proton transfer, such as may occur as a primary step in the hydrogen evolution reaction (h.e.r.) or as a secondary, followup step in organic electrode reactions or O2 reduction, the possibility exists that nonclassical transfer of the H particle may occur by quantum-mechanical tunneling. In homogeneous proton transfer reactions, the consequences of this possibility were investigated quantitatively by Bernal and Fowler and Bell, while Bawn and Ogden examined the H/D kinetic isotope effect that would arise, albeit on the basis of a primitive model, in electrochemical proton discharge and transfer in the h.e.r. 

Manzano B.K., Fowler M.G., Machel H.G. (1997) The influence of thermochemical sulphate reduction on hydrocarbon composition in Nisku reservoirs, Brazeau river area, Alberta, Canada. Org. Geochem. 21, 507-21. 

Among the thermal processes, chemical incineration and molten metal reduction can efficiently destroy soman (see Section 39.2). It may be decomposed by oxidizing with A,A -dihalo-2-imidazolidinone in an aqueous emulsion containing tetrachloroethylene (Worley 1989). Hydrolysis with dilute alkalies should form products of low toxicity. Adsorbents such as Fuller s earth, activated carbon, alumina, or silica gel have been reported to remove soman from cleaning organic solvents (Fowler and Mcllvaine 1989). 

---