Encyclopaedias

Below are brief descriptions of some of the particle-surface interactions important in surface science. The descriptions are intended to provide a basic understanding of how surfaces are probed, as most of the infonuation that we have about surfaces was obtained tluough the use of techniques that are based on such interactions. The section is divided into some general categories, and the important physics of the interactions used for analysis are emphasized. All of these teclmiques are described in greater detail in subsequent sections of the encyclopaedia. Also, note that there are many more teclmiques than just those discussed here. These particular teclmiques were chosen not to be comprehensive, but instead to illustrate the kind of infonuation that can be obtained from surfaces and interfaces. 

As discussed elsewhere in diis encyclopaedia, the critical exponents are related by the following expressions ... 

As discussed in more detail elsewhere in this encyclopaedia, many optical spectroscopic methods have been developed over the last century for the characterization of bulk materials. In general, optical spectroscopies make use of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter to extract molecular parameters from the substances being studied. The methods employed usually rely on the examination of the radiation absorbed. 

A number of surface-sensitive spectroscopies rely only in part on photons. On the one hand, there are teclmiques where the sample is excited by electromagnetic radiation but where other particles ejected from the sample are used for the characterization of the surface (photons in electrons, ions or neutral atoms or moieties out). These include photoelectron spectroscopies (both x-ray- and UV-based) [89, 9Q and 91], photon stimulated desorption [92], and others. At the other end, a number of methods are based on a particles-in/photons-out set-up. These include inverse photoemission and ion- and electron-stimulated fluorescence [93, M]- All tirese teclmiques are discussed elsewhere in tliis encyclopaedia. 

Mark, A.E. Free energy perturbation calculations. Encyclopaedia of Computational Chemistry, Wiley, New York, (1998) (in press). 

Herschel, W.H. and Bulkley, R., 1927. See Rudraiah, N, and Kaloni, P.N. 1990. Flow of non-Newtonian fluids. In Encyclopaedia of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 9, Chapter 1, Gulf Publishers, Houston. 

Elsevier s Encyclopaedia of Organic Chemistry, Edited by F. Radt, 1946-1955, 14 Volumes (Elsevier Press Cleaver-Hume Press). 

S. B. Seeley, "Pencils," EnyclopaediaBritannica, 15th ed.. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, lU. 

Figure 14.11 Map showing tectonic plates and their boundaries. The arrows indicate the direction of their movements (Courtesy World Book Encyclopaedia)...

CRANK, J., and PARK, J, s., Dijfusion in Polymers, Academic Press, London and New York (1968) GARDON, J. L., Article enlilled Cohesive Energy Density in Encyclopaedia of Polymer Science and Technology, Vol. 3, p. 833, Interscience, New York (1969)... 

Encyclopaedia of Polymer Science and Technology Vols. 14 and 15, Wiley-Interscience, New York (1971)... 

KOHAN, M. I., Nylon Plastics Fiandbook, Carl Hanser Verlag Munich, Vienna, New York (1995) NELSON, w. E., Nylon Plastics Technology, Newnes-Butterworths, London (1976) viEWEG. R., and muller, a.. Polyamide, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munchen (1966) (in German) Encyclopaedia of Polymer Science and Technology, Vol. 10, 347-615. Wiley-Interscience, New York (1965)... 

A crude approximation to computer-based systems can be achieved by considering tables of properties of plastics materials such as those published annually in the Modern Plastics Encyclopaedia. Since the tables are to be marked, the following exercise should be carried out on photocopies ... 

Britanniea, 1990, The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th Edition, Chicago. 

Kirk-Othmer, 1993. Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology. Ed. J.I. Kroschwitz. 

Catastrophe When Man Loses Control, preptired by the editors of the Encyclopaedia Britaiuiica, Bantam Books, Now York, 1979. 

Machines and Machine Components. (1973). Encyclopaedia Britannica, Macropeadia, Vol. 11, pp. 230-259. Chicago University of Chicago. 

Taylor, D.E., Tantalum and Tantalum Compounds, in Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology, 19, 2nd ed., John Wiley Sons, 630-652 (1969)... 

Ibelgaufts H (2007) Cytokines online pathfinder encyclopaedia. Free online information at http //www.cope-withcyto kines.de... 

Purinergic System. Figure 2 Schematic of sympathetic cotransmission. ATP and NA released from small granular vesicles (SGV) act on P2X and a-i receptors on smooth muscle, respectively. ATP acting on inotropic P2X receptors evokes excitatory junction potentials (EJPs), increase in intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]j) and fast contraction while occupation of metabotropic ar-adrenoceptors leads to production of inositol triphosphate (IP3), increase in [Ca2+]j and slow contraction. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) stored in large granular vesicles (LGV) acts after release both as a prejunctional inhibitory modulator of release of ATP and NA and as a postjunctional modulatory potentiator of the actions of ATP and NA. Soluble nucleotidases are released from nerve varicosities, and are also present as ectonucleotidases. (Reproduced from Burnstock G (2007) Neurotransmission, neuromodulation cotransmission. In Squire LR (ed) New encyclopaedia of neuroscience. Elsevier, The Netherlands (In Press), with permission from Elsevier). 

The present chapter, therefore, will present certain topics based on a selection of references, mainly in view of providing a perception of the current developments and great potential of chitin today. The reader is referred to books and reviews [1-17] where basic information and specific subjects are treated in a more systematic way. These polysaccharides are described not only in encyclopaedias, handbooks, monographs and articles, but also in the American Standard Testing Materials standard guides and in the Pharmacopoeias of various coimtries [10,16,17]. 

Lange, O., Nobel, P.S., Osmond, C.B. Ziegler, H. (1981). Physiological Plant Ecology II. Encyclopaedia of Plant Physiology, Vol. 12B, ed. A. Pirson and M.H. Zimmerman. Berlin Springer-Verlag. 

Nakajima, N. and Harrell, E.R., Analyzing steady-state flow of elastomers. Encyclopaedia of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 7, Gulf Publishing, Houston, 1988, pp. 703-723, Chapter 24. 

It is the central part of modern Dialectics - the soul of all knowledge which is truly scientific - as taught by Hegel Encyclopaedia of the philosophical scienceSi 1830) and Engels [Dialectics of nature, 1879). And, to go back in time even further, combined opposites - Yin and Yang - are central to old Chinese philosophy and ancient popular wisdom. 

Macrae, R., Robinson, R.K., and Sadler, M.J., Eds., Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Vol. II, Academic Press, San Diego, 1993. 

Fiege, H., et al.. Phenol Derivatives, Ullmann s Encyclopaedia of Industrial Chemistry,... 

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