Emission pricing

But shielding Australian producers from high emissions prices that apply elsewhere results in less than the economically efficient amount of abatement undertaken in Australia." As pointed out above, the direct effect of less abatement under the scheme means more international purchases of abatement units, or extra policies outside of emissions pricing. Furthermore, where separate and only partly compatible emissions pricing regimes apply in different countries, this imposes additional transaction costs on business. 

Drawing on the lessons of the economic prosperity that has come with openness to international markets (Anderson, 2000), the future for a trade-intensive economy such as Australia s is in harmonization with international emissions markets, insofar as they are mature and underpinned by stable policy frameworks. An economically efficient outcome, with comparable emissions prices to other countries, could of course be achieved in ways other than by linking emissions trading markets. But in the context of an international agreement based on quantitative emissions targets, broad access to international carbon markets would be necessary. 

In the 5% scenario, Australia s actual emissions in 2020 would be between 6% and 20% above year 2000 levels in the three models used, at a common emissions price of A 35/t. In the 15% scenario, 2020 emissions would be between 8% below and 10% above 2000 levels, at a common price of A 50/t. Data are from Department of the Treasury (2008, Table 6.4). 

As shown by Babiker et al. (2004), the economically optimal emissions price may differ between coimtries because of differing interactions with existing taxes, but a price cap is not intended as a tool to correct for such effects. 

The LCOE takes into account total capital cost of the plant and operating costs as fixed (i.e., labor) and variable (i.e., fuel and consumables), but it does not take into account any CO2 emission price (some studies include it (OECD, 2011)). 

The cost of CO2 avoided parameter from an economic point of view is the CO2 emission price that equalizes the LCOE of a plant without capture to the plant with capture. 

Cost of administration The cost of administering an emissions pricing policy depends on the number of sources that need to be monitored. Charging the ultimate emitters can be very cumbersome, given the millions of such entities. It can be cheaper to charge the upstream suppliers (such as energy supply companies) whose products end up as emissions because there are fewer of them (compared with the ultimate emitters). Both carbon taxes and cap-and-trade can potentially be applied to upstream suppliers. 

Revenue neutrality Several studies have indicated that the costs of emission pricing policies are minimized if any government revenue from these pohcies (in the form of a tax or revenue from auctioning emission allowances) is returned to the consumers in the form of a reduction in the marginal rates of pre-existing income or sales taxes. 

Spectroscopic methods such as uv and fluorescence have rehed on the polyene chromophore of vitamin A as a basis for analysis. Indirectly, the classical Carr-Price colorimetric test also exploits this feature and measures the amount of a transient blue complex at 620 nm which is formed when vitamin A is dehydrated in the presence of Lewis acids. For uv measurements of retinol, retinyl acetate, and retinyl palmitate, analysis is done at 325 nm. More sensitive measurements can be obtained by fluorescence. Excitation is done at 325 nm and emission at 470 nm. Although useful, all of these methods suffer from the fact that the method is not specific and any compound which has spectral characteristics similar to vitamin A will assay like the vitamin... 

Low-excess-air firing (LEA) is a simple, yet effective technique. Excess air is defined as the amount of air in excess of what is theoretically needed to achieve 100% combustion. Before fuel prices rose, it was not uncommon to see furnaces operating with 50 to 100% excess air. Currently, it is possible to achieve full combustion for coal-fired units with less than 15-30% excess air. Studies have shown that reducing excess air ft-om an average of 20% to an average of 14% can reduce emissions of NO, by an average of 19%. 

Metallic Sr and Ba are best prepared by high-temperature reduction of their oxides with Al in an evacuated retort or by small-scale electrolysis of fused chloride baths. They have limited use as getters, and a Ni-Ba alloy is used for sparkplug wire because of its high emissivity. Annual production of Ba metal is about 20-30 tonnes worldwide and the 1991 price about 80-140/kg depending on quality. 

Cofiring biomass has environmental benefits in addition to lowering greenhouse gases. Since biomass has little or no sulfur, sulfur dioxide (SOj) emissions are less when biomass fuels are used. In the United States, power plants have allowable sulfur dioxide levels for each gigawatt of power produced. If they produce less than the allowable amount of sulfur dioxide, they receive credits with which they can trade on the open market. The price for these sulfur dioxide credits is about 70 to 200 per ton. 

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