Elastic force energy conversion

There are few results in the literature on the evolution of transformation diagrams during chain reactions of thermosets. From a thermodynamic point of view, before the gel point the behavior is similar to the well-studied synthesis of high-impact polystyrene (Bucknall, 1989). But after the gel point, which arrives at low conversions, the contribution of elastic forces to the free energy of mixing has to be added in Eq. (8.1) (De Gennes, 1979). 

A more complete technical description of the consilient mechanisms of concern to biological energy conversion encompasses two distinct but interlinked physical processes of hydrophobic association and of elastic force development. The latter results from a generally applicable... 

The second point addresses the nature of elastic force development in relation to imder-standing efficient energy conversion. If the energy required for chain deformation during elastic force development becomes lost to other parts of the protein and to the surrounding water, then so too is efficient energy conversion lost. In other words, elastomeric force development on deformation in a protein-based machine followed by marked hysteresis on relaxation necessarily denotes an inefficient protein-based machine. 

Further Consideration of the Relevance of the Nature of Elastic Force to Efficient Mechanisms for Energy Conversion... 

The primary forces were designated hydrophobic and elastic consilient mechanisms, because each provided a common groundwork of explanation in its realm of utilization, and commonly they do so inseparably. In Chapter 8, those very consilient mechanisms were shown to be dominant in the function of specific examples of the three principal classes of energy conversions of living organisms (subsequent to the photosynthetic step itself). The three classes are... 

The energy conversions that produce motion in living organisms consist of two distinct but interlinked physical processes of hydrophobic association and elastic force development, collectively referred to as consilient mechanisms in that they each provide a common groundwork of explanation. The association of oil-like domains, hydrophobic association, has been characterized in terms of the comprehensive hydrophobic effect (CHE), and elastic force development has been described in terms of the damping of internal chain dynamics on deformation, whether deformation occurs by extension, compression or solvent-mediated repulsion (see section E.4.1.2 and Figures E.3 and E.4, below). 

Expectation 4 That the hydrophobic association of the powerstroke extends kinetically free chain segments to produce an elastic force. In order that there be a smooth and efficient conversion of energy from chemical to mechanical by the act of hydrophobic association, the energy must be temporarily stored in an elastic deformation with limited hysteresis. This occurs as hydrophobic asso-... 

The above three discussed protein-based machines—Complex III of the electron transport chain, ATP synthase/Fj-ATPase, and the myosin II motor of muscle contraction—represent the three major classes of energy conversion that sustain Life. Therefore, the facility with which the consilient mechanisms explain their function indeed support the thesis that biology s vital force arises from the coupled hydrophobic and elastic consilient mechanisms. 

Association-Dissociation, Elastic Force, and Energy Conversion in Elastin Mechanics... 

Conversely, the anisotropic response of a crystal to a mechanical force can be described by the elastic constants, Qy, which are defined as the second derivatives of the total energy with respect to the components i and / of the strain tensor, e ... 

Figure 1.7. Shown are the first reported data of the conversion by an elastic-contractile model protein of chemical energy due to an increase in concentration of acid into the mechanical work of contraction. A Length changes at constant force (isotonic contraction) in phosphate-buffered saline. B Force changes at constant length (isometric contraction) in phosphate-buffered saline. (Reproduced from Urry et al. )...

SEM, field emission SEM and X-ray diffraction (XRD) are the most common techniques used to characterize surface morphology, microstmcture, and the phase composition of conversion coatings, while energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) are the most common techniques to characterize the chemical composition and oxidation state of conversion coatings. Other characterizations include transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), scratch test, and hardness and elastic modulus measurements. 

The energy criterion for fracture is simply an extension of Griffith s hypothesis which describes quasi-static crack propagation as the conversion of the work done, Wd, by the external force and the available elastic energy stored in the bulk of the specimen, U, into surface free energy, y. It may be written ... 

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