Crystal size from commercial equipment

Crystal growth is a layer-by-layer process, and the retention time required in most commercial equipment to produce crystals of the size normally desired is often on the order of 2 to 6 h. Growth rates are usually limited to less than 1 to 2 pm/min. On the other hand, nucle-ation in a supersaturated solution can be generated in a fraction of a second. The influence of any upsets in operating conditions, in terms of the excess nuclei produced, is very short-term in comparison with the total growth period of the product removed from the crystallizer. A worst-case scenario for batch or continuous operation occurs when the explosion of nuclei is so severe that it is impossible to grow an acceptable crystal size distribution, requiring redesolution or washout of the system. In a practical sense, this means that steadiness of operation is much more important in crystallization equipment than it is in many other types of process equipment. 

Nowadays, pulsed, frequency tripled Nd YAG UV lasers (355 nm) are usually employed for MALDI experiments with a repetition rate of 1000 Hz in commercial instruments for sufficient data acquisition. In MALDI-IMS, the resolving power for application strongly depends on the sample preparation step (e.g., matrix crystal size), stepper motor accuracy, and laser spot sizes. To achieve MALDI-IMS to a practical resolution, the laser spot size of 20 pm is usually used. Therefore, the time needed to obtain images from a sample depends on the number of analyzed spots, the repetition rate of the laser (Hz), and the data collecting and processing speed of computers. For example, imaging a whole-body mouse or rat section with current commercially available MALDI mass spectrometers equipped with lasers operating at 1 kHz would take 2-4 h. 

Smooth scale-ups from R D laboratory or bench scale to pilot scale and then to commercial size batch-operated, multi-purpose chemical plants are often not easy to achieve for a variety of reasons, often resulting from compromises due to the need to use existing equipment. The consequences of this lack of scalability can be a reduction in product quality and yield, increased by-product formation, longer cycle times, and, in some cases, an inability to reproduce key product properties such as color, size, or crystal structure. These consequences invariably result in an increased use of mass and energy and a production of greater waste per unit mass of product. 

---