Codeine occurrence

Diclofenac has been identified as one of the major pharmaceuticals in the waters in Berlin (Germany) at median concentrations of 0.47 pgL (Ternes et al., 2002 Ferrari et al., 2003). Other analgesics such as naproxen, phenazone, codeine, indome-tacin, fenoprofen, ketoprofen, phenylbutazone, and propyphenazone have also been detected in sewage and surface water (Heberer and Adam, 2005 Boyd et al., 2005), although data about their occurrence in the environment are not extensive. The data presented in Figure 2.5 are not exhaustive but are rather intended to show the great diversity in concentrations of some of the key PPCPs in wastewater. 

In the plant family Papaveraceae, morphinane alkaloids were found only in some sections and species of the genus Papat er. The occurrence of thebaine was observed in the sections Orthorl oeades, Mecones, Pilosa, and Macrantha whereas morphine and codeine were found only in... 

The seasonal variations of the alkaloids and the areas of occurrence of F. officinalis and M. microcarpa have been studied (217, 839). A similar paper was devoted to P. somniferum (513, 840) an analysis revealed that a general accumulation of alkaloids, especially the hydrophenanthrene group, occurred one day after the flower had opened. This coincides with the peak of the pollination period. At that period, besides the principal opium poppy latex alkaloids (morphine, codeine, thebaine, papaverine, and narcotine), several other Dragendorff positive compounds were detected. The lysosomal property and accumulation of the alkaloids in vacuoles of Chelidonium majus have been described (841). 

Susceptibility factors Genetic Rapid metabolism of a dose of codeine within the recommended limits resulted in high plasma morphine concentrations, resulting in death in a 2-year-old boy who was given codeine syrup postoperatively following adenotonsillectomy [66 ]. The authors suggested that the ultrarapid metabolizer phenotype had been the main contributor to the occurrence of bronchopneumonia,... 

Phillipson JD, Handa SS, El-Dabbas SW (1976) N-Oxides of morphine, codeine and thebaine and their occurrence in Papaver species. Phytochemistry 19 1681-1684 Pummerer R, Puttfarcken H, Schopflocher P (1925) Oxidation of phenols. VIII. Dehydrogenation of p-cresol. Chem Ber 58B 1808-1820... 

Analysis of extracts obtained with cell cultures derived hom Papaver bracteatum and Papaver somniferum revealed the occurrence of thebaine in the former, of thebaine, codeine, and to a lesser extent of morphine in the latter material (Tables 1,2). Considering the many attempts to demonstrate morphinan alkaloids in cell cultures which remained unsuccessful and unreported, detection of occurrence would have been described until quite recently as a rare phenomenon. The availability of a radioimmunoassay and other improved analytical systems would explain the surge of reports of accumulation since 1980. According to recent analyses, concentrations of morphinan alkaloids are as low or lower than in leaf tissue (0.14% DW), and much lower than in dried latex, opium (ca. 20% DW). 

Callus and cell suspension cultures of opium poppy have, so far, not been seen to develop typical laticifers as displayed, for instance, in micrographs of shoots from seedlings and regenerants by Thureson-Klein (1970) and Nessler and Mahlberg (1977, 1979). Laticifer-like cells were demonstrated foxP. bracteatum cell cultures by Kut-chan et al. (1983). Absence of typical laticifers was often cited as the reason for failure to show occurrence of thebaine or codeine in poppy cell cultures. Today one may propose that accumulation of low amounts of morphinan alkaloids do not require latex and respective vessels. Indeed, other parts of the plant besides latex have... 

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