Causation primary

Clinically, the picture of addiction obviously varies with and is also dependent upon both the set and the setting. To some extent it might be said that addiction results when strong negative consequences are insufficient to stop drug intake. Neurobiological research points to four basic aspects of addiction with different causation primary (core) effects on reward and motivational systems primary contributory effects in other brain structures core neuroadaptafions to repeated use and contributory neuroadaptations to repeated use. 

In the previous chapter, a comprehensive description was provided, from four complementary perspectives, of the process of how human errors arise during the tasks typically carried out in the chemical process industry (CPI). In other words, the primary concern was with the process of error causation. In this chapter the emphasis will be on the why of error causation. In terms of the system-induced error model presented in Chapter 1, errors can be seen as arising from the conjunction of an error inducing environment, the intrinsic error tendencies of the human and some initiating event which triggers the error sequence from this imstable situation (see Figure 1.5, Chapter 1). This error sequence may then go on to lead to an accident if no barrier or recovery process intervenes. Chapter 2 describes in detail the characteristics of the basic human error tendencies. Chapter 3 describes factors which combine with these tendencies to create the error-likely situation. These factors are called performance-influencing factors or PIFs. 

Figure SOS. Tentative scheme of the main events in causation of primary hemochromatosis (MIM 235200). The two principal mutations are CY282Y and H63D (see text). Mutations in genes other than HFE are also involved in some cases.

The Doll-Peto estimates, and others as well, nevertheless suggest a primary role for lifestyle factors, not chemical pollution and industrial products, in cancer causation. 

Case-control studies retrospectively compare the frequency of breast implantation in women with and without the outcomes of interest. If, for example, connective tissue disorders were more likely to occur among women with breast implants, this would constitute some evidence for causation. Case-control studies typically require less time and resources than cohort studies. However, they are susceptible to many more biases than cohort studies [62]. The primary reason not to perform a case-control study here, however, is that a separate case-control study would be required for each of the outcomes of interest, i.e., a case-control study of systemic sclerosis, a case-control study of rheumatoid arthritis, etc. The... 

Turning now to Avicenna, we must start with his account of efficient causation. While Aristotle defines efficient cause as the primary cause of change or rest , Avicenna distinguishes between two types of efficient causes iliaJa iliyya), or agents fiVit) He writes ... 

First, they are often obtained from incorrect statistical treatments. When the primary experimental quantities are the equilibrium constants, which are measured at different temperatures, any error that makes AH° greater also makes AS greater, as indicated by Equation 1.89. The propagation of errors will tend to distribute enthalpy and entropy estimates along a line characterized by a slope equal to the harmonic mean of the experimental temperatures [85]. This artefact has been pointed out many times [86-88]. Several correct statistical treatments have been advanced [85-89]. For example, the fair value of the correlation coefficient (0.951) of the enthalpy-entropy correlation (plotted in Figure 1.2) for the complexation of seven amines with h has been taken to imply a chemical causation [90]. A correct statistical treatment shows [85] that the 95% confidence interval for p is (850, 147) and includes the harmonic mean of the experimental temperatures, 298 K. Thus, the hypothesis that the observed enthalpy-entropy compensation is just a consequence of the propagation of experimental errors cannot be rejected at the 5% level of significance. 

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