Elevation, and boiling point

The properties of a solution differ considerably from those of the pure solvent Those solution properties that depend primarily on the concentration of solute particles rather than their nature are called colligative properties. Such properties include vapor pressure lowering, osmotic pressure, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression. This section considers the relations between colligative properties and solute concentration, with nonelectrolytes that exist in solution as molecules. 

Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Lowering... 

Boiling point elevation and freezing point lowering, like vapor pressure lowerings are colligative properties. They are directly proportional to solute concentration, generally expressed as molality, m. The relevant equations are... 

Boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression measurements have demonstrated that at all concentrations in THF and at low concentrations in ether (up to 0.1M) Grignard reagents prepared from alkyl bromides and iodides are monomeric, that is, there are few or no molecules with two magnesium atoms. Thus, part of the Schlenk equilibrium is operating... 

The depression of the activity may be measured in various ways. The most obvious would involve a measurement of the vapor pressure lowering, but this method is superseded by others both in accuracy and in simplicity of execution. The boiling point elevation and freezing point depression methods relegated vapor pressure measurement... 

Colligative1 properties of dilute polymer solutions depend only on the number of dissolved molecules and not on properties of the molecules themselves, such as mass or size. Osmotic pressure, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, and vapour pressure lowering are the most prominent examples. These methods essentially allow one to count the number n of solute molecules. From n and the known total mass m of the solute the molar mass M is readily obtained as... 

The freezing point depression and boiling point elevation techniques are useful in calculating the molar mass of a solute or its van t Hoff factor. In these cases, you will begin with the answer (the freezing point depression or the boiling point elevation), and follow the same steps as above in reverse order. 

Colligative properties are those properties of solutions that depend on the number of solute particles present and not their identity. Colligative properties include vapor pressure lowering, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, and osmotic pressure. Colloids are homogeneous mixtures, in which the solute particles are intermediate in size between suspensions and true solutions. We can distinguish colloids from true solutions by the Tyndall effect. 

Activity data for electrolytes usually are obtained by one or more of three independent experimental methods measurement of the potentials of electrochemical cells, measurement of the solubility, and measurement of the properties of the solvent, such as vapor pressure, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, and osmotic pressure. All these solvent properties may be subsumed under the rubric colligative properties. 

Raoult s law works for small polymers as well as small molecules. Determination of M is based for both ebulliometry (boiling point elevation) and cryometry (freezing point lowering) on the Clausius-Clapeyron equation ... 

Cohesion intermolecular attractive force between particles within a substance Colligative Property a property dependent on the number of particles in solution and not on the type of particles, for example, boiling point elevation and freezing point depression... 

Adding an impurity to a solvent makes its liquid phase more stable through the combined effects of boiling point elevation and freezing point depression. That s why you r irely see bodies of frozen salt water. The salt in the oceans lowers the freezing point of the water, making the liquid phase more stable and able to sustain temperatures slightly below 0°C. 

Then plug this value and a/7 of 0.512 into the equation for boiling point elevation and solve for molality ... 

Estimate the boiling-point elevation and the normal boiling points of (a) 0.10 m C12H22On(aq) ... 

X V iution), the determination of the molar mass of a solute requires a measurement of mass, volume, temperature, and osmotic pressure. Osmotic pressures are generally large and can be determined quite accurately, thus yielding accurate molar masses. Boiling-point elevations and freezing-point depressions are usually small and not very accurate, so molar mass determinations based on those measures often are not accurate. 

As with vapor-pressure lowering (Section 11.6), the actual amount of boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression observed for solutions of ionic substances depends on the amount of dissociation, as given by a van t Hoff factor. The formulas for both boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression can be modified to take dissociation into account ... 

The fundamental cause of boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression in solutions is the same as the cause of vapor-pressure lowering (Section 11.6) the entropy difference between the pure solvent and the solvent in a solution. Let s take boiling-point elevations first. We know that liquid and vapor phases are in equilibrium at the boiling point (Tb) and that the free-energy difference between the two phases (AGvap) is therefore zero (Section 8.14). 

The Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression activity (eChapter 11.7) illustrates how the boiling point and freezing point of water are affected by the addition of different solutes. 

Vapor-pressure lowering, boiling-point elevation, and freezing-point depression are very similar thermodynamically. For example, the increase in boiling point ATh is interpreted thermodynamically by using the boiling-point elevation constant Kb to obtain the molality of the solution, as stated in the equation... 

Freezing-Point Depression, Boiling-Point Elevation and Osmotic Pressure... 

Particularly simple forms of the equations for the freezing-point depression, boiling-point elevation, and osmotic pressure are obtained when the solution is ideal or when it is sufficiently dilute, so that the ideally dilute solution approximation is appropriate. In both of these cases, the activity of the solvent is equal to its mole fraction, so that... 

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