Atomic paradigm

Nevertheless, the energetic analysis also reveals the atomic systems Be, B and C to be situated over the corresponding physical stable states this may explain why boron and carbon present special chemical phenomenology (e.g., triple electronic bonds and nanosystems with long C-bindings, respectively), which is not entirely explained by ordinary physical atomic paradigms (March, 1991 Wentorf, 1965 Eremets et al., 2001 van Setten et al., 2007 Widom Mihalkovic, 2008 Putz, 2011c). 

However, based on cubic atom paradigm, Lewis had formulated, in an original manner, a set of postulates of the chemical behavior of matter composed of atoms, that can be constituted, in fact, as the first postulates of the modem chemistry, as follows (Lewis, 1916). 

However, based on the cubic atom paradigm, and hence with the octet mle, one can describe the atomic sfructures and the chemical bonds in a consistent and unified maimer, with a high degree of causality and interpretation. 

There is history on how Newton G. Lewis had introduced the doublet and octet electronic mle in the valence layer by the cubic phenomenology, see Chapter 3 of the Volume IV of the present five-volume work (Putz, 2016b). However, even if the quantum theory that follows had invalidated the cubic atom paradigm, the rationalization of the chemical bond through the electrons doublet or of the electrons pair (with associated spins) survived all the orbital approaches, being definitively consecrated by the Pauli Exclusion Principle. 

The supporters of this view appear to be fighting a losing battle if one considers the pervasiveness of the current orbitals paradigm in chemistry (2). Atomic and molecular orbitals are freely used at all levels of chemistry in an attempt to explain chemical structure, bonding, and reactivity. This is a very unfortunate situation since the concept of orbitals cannot be strictly maintained in the light of quantum theory from which it supposedly derives. 

Frauenfelder H, McMahon BH, Fenimore PW. 2003. Myoglobin The hydrogen atom of biology and a paradigm of complexity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 8615. 

But it was Max Planck who shattered the paradigm of the steadiness of nature. He showed that atoms could not absorb energy in all forms and quantities, but only in so-called quanta, that is, in defined amounts. Thus, electrons jump, as we explain it today, from one energy level to another. Natura saltat Albert Einstein s theory was even more groundbreaking space and time form a continuum, matter and energy, in contrast, are quantized, essentially "grainy", so to speak. In this case, nature cannot but jump. 

Z. Jumps in knowledge arise from new theoretical concepts, such as the disproving of the phlogiston hypothesis ("the" paradigm shift) or the atom model of Dalton and the Periodic Table. An equally accelerating effect results from the discovery of new methods, such as electrochemistry, spectral analysis, and X-rays. 

O—H bonds, hydrogen atom abstraction from, 9,127 Organic materials for second-order non-linear optics, 32,121 Organic reactivity, electron-transfer paradigm for, 35, 193 Organic reactivity, structure determination of, 35,67... 

The stability of scarred states to external noise and other environmental disturbances was the next natural issue that was raised and partially addressed earlier (L. Sirko, et.al., 1993 R. Scharf, et.al., 1994). The main conclusion was that scarred states are quite robust to reasonable levels of noise. This question took on added relevance with the coming of age of mesoscopic systems where, be it spontaneous emission in atom optics or leads or scattering and other forms of dissipation in heterostructures, the open nature of the system must be accounted for. These new experiments also provided non-ideal realizations of simple theoretical paradigms such as stadium billiards and the kicked rotor, with additional issues that had to be accounted for in the theory. 

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