Water window

Tooth-Eye-Window Fire-Capricorn-Aries (by elements) FIRE-EARTH-FIRE. Note that 300-70-5 is Fire-Goat-Lamb. In the name itself the sequences are Tooth-Goat-Water-Window Fire-Libra-water-Aries FIRE-AIR-WATER-FIRE. The reduction of 375 is 15=C, which is the extension of 3, and so confirms what follows in Bryant s text.)... 

FIGURE 3 Survey of measured gain products (GL) divided by input power P versus wavelength for various pumping mechanisms. The biological water window is indicated. The line is somewhat arbitrary. [Expanded from Key, M. H. (1988). J. de Physique 49, C1-135.]... 

Fig. 5.14. Tile water window for soft X-ray microscopy, and a set-up for X-ray microscopy. LPP laser-produced plasma [5.48]...

Ch. Spielmann, N.H. Burnett, S. Sartarnia, R. Koppnitsch, M. Schniirer, C. Kan, M. Lensoaer, P. Wobrauschek, F. Krausz Generation of coherent X-rays in the water window using 5 femtosecond laser pulses. Science 278, 6G1 (1997)... 

Au nanorods (NRs) are particularly useful for biological applications since their near-field and far-field optical properties can be tuned controllably throughout the NIR water window by varying their geometry [34], Metallic nanorods and nanowires can have enhanced electric fields at the tips compared to spheres, which would lead to increased SERS activity [1, 35-38]. Moreover it has been shown that Ag cylinders or nanorods exhibit extraordinary electrocataljAic activities towards the electro-reduction process, especially in the case of benzyl chloride [29]. 

Cyclic voltammetry (CV) has been employed to determine the operational potential window (the water window) limited by the H2 and O2 evolution potentials due to electrolysis of water on the cyclic voltammogram. 

Therefore, an electrode with a rougher surface would exhibit a larger surface area, and thus a higher capacitance. As seen in Fig. 9, three similarly sized electrodes made of titanium, platinum, and iridium exhibit similar impedance values when they are initially submerged. However, after the iridium electrode is subjected to repeated voltage cycles at the full voltage range of the water window (as in cyclic voltammetry), its impedance at lower frequencies decreases by up to 10 fold [17]. 

Irreversible and Reversible Redox Reactions Water Window... 

These reactions cannot be reversed once they occur, because the product escapes the surface immediately. In order to prevent electrolysis, the voltage waveform on the electrode interface capacitance is required to never exceed the so called water window limits [4]. Water window is different for different electrode materials [4]. Measured with silver-silver chloride as the reference electrode, water window is between —0.6 and +0.8 V for iridium oxide electrodes [10] and 0.9 V for TiN [4],... 

For electrochemical safety, the transients of the electrode-electrolyte interface voltage must stay inside the water window even for pulse widths as short as 0.1-0.5 ms [5,7,9-11], For shorter pulse widths this is even more critical, because with shorter pulses, the reversible reactions cannot be fully utilized, as the reactions don t have an unlimited speed. Therefore, for shorter pulses, the charge available from reversible processes is smaller [7]. 

Fig. 2.2 (a) Directly measured electrode potential, (b) Same waveform plotted on exptinded scale after correction for access voltage 1 (by subtracting Va), this waveform should be kept inside the water window (—0.6 to +0.9 V for platinum) for safe operation. The pulse length and the charge injection density were 0.2 ms and 400 p,C/cm, respectively. Biphasic cathodic first symmetrical current pulses were used. A saturated calomel electrode (SCE) was used as the reference electrode. From [7], with permission 1990 IEEE... 

The most safe and at the same time conservative way to prevent harmful reactions at the electrode surface caused by non-uniform current distribution is to limit the electrode potential (in a two-electrode system the counter electrode is the potential reference) inside the water window, instead of limiting the interface capacitance... 

Publication Charge injection limit Water window against Ag AgCl Interface capacitance... 

The safe operation window (=water window) for iridium oxide (IrOx) is —0.6 V +0.8 V versus Ag AgCl [28,32]. Outside this range electrode damage and solution pH change are possible. For cathodic excursions below —0.6 V versus Ag AgCl delamination of AIROF may occur which is not reversible and deteriorates the electrode properties considerably (Fig. 6.9). This delamination can be identified by a sharp anodic discontinuity of the cyclic voltammetry plot as shown in Fig. 6.10 [28]. 

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