Universe expansion history

There are several independent applications with supernovae to measure the current expansion rate, Hubble s constant, and the expansion history of the universe. The latter has led to the surprising discovery that the expansion is actually accelerating and a new component for the universe is needed. Supernovae are also poised to be a major player in the characterisation of the nature of the dark energy. 

The geometric history of the Universe (its expansion) imposes a series of metamorphoses on matter and radiation, but not on the quintessence, which remains essentially constant. It escapes dispersion and ends up dominating over other energy forms. 

In summary, the thermal history of the early Universe is very simple. It just assumes a global isotropic and uniform Universe. In its simplest version - no structure of any kind on scales larger than individual particles - the contents of the Universe are determined by "standard elmentary physics" i) ag lobal expansion governed by GR, ii) particles interactions governed by the "Standard Model" of Particle Physics, iii) distributions of particles governed by the laws of Statistical Physics. 

McCraw, D. J. (1985). Phytogeographyic history of Larrea in southwestern New Mexico illustrating the historical expansion of the Chihuahuan Desert. M.A. thesis. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. 

The equilibrium in the hot particle soup is maintained through frequent elementary particle reactions mediated by the quanta of the three fundamental interactions. The expansion of the Universe dilutes the densities and, consequently, the reaction rates get gradually lower. The adiabatic expansion lowers monotonically also the temperature (the average energy density). (Actually, there is a one-to-one mapping between time and temperature.) The following milestones can be listed in the thermal history of the Universe (Kolb and Turner 1990). 

Davis, D. K. (2007). Resurrecting the granary of Rome Environmental history and french colonial expansion in North Africa. Athens, OH Ohio University Press. 

In the laboratories of the University of Namur, the authors and their colleagues have a long history in the development of methods for the study of one-dimensionaUy periodic systems described quantum-mechanically at the Hartree-Fock and correlation levels using expansions in Gaussian-type atomic orbitals. This work, which was started under the direction of Professor J. M. Andre, led to the creation of the program known as PLH [1]. That program, designed for the study of the structural and electronic properties of linear polymers, evaluated the lattice sums as direct-space expansions. Further work, directed by Professor J. Del-halle, led to the development of an approach that combined direct- and reciprocal-space concepts to yield an Ewald-type method [2], That work appeared in the Ph.D. dissertation of Flamant [3], in a paper that included the present authors [4], and in later publications that are referred to where appropriate in the present communication. 

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