Transmutations continued successful

Another kind of particle and another kind of interaction were discovered from a detailed study of beta radioactivity in which electrons with a continuous spectrum of energies are emitted by an unstable nucleus. The corresponding interactions could be viewed as being due to the virtual transmutation of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a new neutral particle of vanishing mass called the neutrino. The theory provided such a successful systematization of beta decay rate data for several nuclei that the existence of the neutrino was well established more than 20 years before its experimental discovery. The beta decay interaction was very weak even compared to the electron-photon interaction. 

Halle in the wake of Bottger s reputed success of transmutation - in fact, Roth-Scholtz placed it as the opening piece of the Theatrum. We have no direct evidence to indicate why Stahl s relationship with Roth-Scholtz did not continue. Yet it is obvious that once Stahl became a convinced disbeliever of alchemy, it was not in his interest to support Roth-Scholtz s agenda of alchemical publication. 

In previous chapters we have seen how Dalton s atomic theory encountered difficulties, especially during the first half of the nineteenth century. After 1860 the chemical atom became so useful, especially to organic chemists, that only a few dissenting voices were heard in this branch of the science. However, to many physicists the atomic concept seemed unnecessary, and some of the great advances in nineteenth century physics had been made without reference to atomism. Then, in a series of discoveries which were made in rapid succession around the turn of the century, the existence of atoms was established to the satisfaction of everyone. All atoms were shown to contain identical subatomic particles, which were called electrons. Furthermore, certain atoms were shown to be undergoing spontaneous and continuous transmutation into others. The atomic concept may have been vindicated, but at the cost of disproving Dalton s tenets of the indivisibility and immutability of atoms. Further advances placed the periodic table on a firm theoretical basis, and provided an explanation of the forces involved in chemical bonding. 

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