Thermodynamics of open systems

Only in the last decades has the thermodynamics of open systems been treated intensively and successfully. The thermodynamics of irreversible systems was studied initially by Lars Onsager, and in particular by Ilya Progogine and his Brussels school both studied systems at conditions far from equilibrium. Certain systems have the capacity to remain in a dynamic state far from equilibrium by taking up free energy as a result, the entropy of the environment increases (see Sect. 9.1). 

No laws of physics or thermodynamics are violated in such open dissipative systems exhibiting increased COP and energy conservation laws are rigorously obeyed. Classical equilibrium thermodynamics does not apply and is permissibly violated. Instead, the thermodynamics of open systems far from thermodynamic equilibrium with their active environment—in this case the active environment-rigorously applies [2-4]. 

In Chapters 6, 7, and 8, the thermodynamic framework is successively apphed to phase transformations of single-component systems, chemical reactions, and ideal solutions. Included are discussions of the thermodynamics of open systems, the phase rule, and colligative properties. Chapter 9 gives the framework for discussing nonideal multicomponent systems and describes a... 

In order to discuss phase transformations in this chapter and chemical reactions in the next chapter, we will need to develop the thermodynamics of open systems. In open systems, the number of moles of the various components of the system can change and the thermodynamic fimctions depend on the numbers of moles of these components, as well as on thermodynamic variables. For example, the natural variables for U become (/(.S, V, n, ), where the index i ranges over the components of the system. 

Thermodynamics of Open Systems 1.20.1 Thermodynamic Functions of State... 

Consider as an illustrative example a single component case. As in the ordinary thermodynamics of open systems [146] the entropy extremum principle of equation (118) requires the constraint of the fixed number of electrons, N p = N°. Moreover, in order to introduce a temperature parameter T, associated with the constraint of the fixed average energy as the inverse of the condition Lagrange multiplier, one... 

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