Subject artificial muscles

Artificial muscles have been attracting attention in the field of robotics however, to conduct research on that subject has not been simple, since advanced materials have been commercially unavailable. Senior researchers on this area... 

Poly(2-acrylamido-2-methyl-l-propanesulfonic acid) (PAMPS) is a highly ionic conductive synthetic polymer that has been used in combination with PVA in order to produce an electroactive network membrane as an artificial muscle (Dai et al. 2009). The PVA/PAMPS blends were subjected to a heat treatment at high temperatures (above 60°C) to facilitate formation of physical crosslinks in the ionic network (see Figure 4.2). 

Two precautions should be kept in mind Neuromuscular blocking drugs inhibit, concentration-dependently, all skeletal muscles including those necessary for respiration. If these muscles are paralyzed by these drugs artificial respiration must be applied since central or peripheral nerve stimulation, for example with analeptics are useless. Furthermore is it important to realize that the individual subjected to a efficient neuro-muscular blockade is fully conscious and aware of any pain although completely unable to express discomfort. 

Assistive systems that apply FES to restore sensory or motor function are called neural prostheses. A neural prosthesis (NP) could improve sensory or motor function in subjects after cerebro-vascular accident (CVA), spinal cord injury (SCI), and some other diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) [1]. A motor NP applies electrical stimulation to artificially generate muscle contractions required for executing of a functional task in subjects who have lost voluntary control because of a disease or injury. The basic phenomena of the FES are the contraction of a muscle due to the direct stimulation... 

A DBI application with significant implications is neural-prostheses or muscle stimulators controlled with brain signals. In effect, a neural prosthesis could reconnect the brain to paralyzed limbs, essentially creating an artificial nervous system. DBI controls could be used to stimulate muscles in paralyzed arms and legs to enable a subject to learn to move them again. Preliminary work on a neurally controlled virtual hand has been reported by Kennedy et al. (2000). DBI control has also been adapted to a hand-grasp neuroprosthesis (Lauer et al., 2000). 

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