Raman Spectroscopy RS

Raman is used as a complementary tool with TEM and XPS to examine structures and chemical composition changes of ES electrode materials that have undergone chemical or physical alterations, for example, characterizations of graphene, thin films, and electrode materials that will undergo pseudocapacitive redox reactions [44-46]. It has also been used successfully to study ion insertion into carbon materials for ES electrodes such as 

Electrochemical Super capacitors for Energy Storage and Delivery 

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The surface morphology, thickness and quality of the deposited carbon films are analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), by energy dispersive x-ray (EDx) and by Raman spectroscopy (RS). The Raman spectrum was recorded using an argon ion laser Raman microprobe. The exciting laser wavelength is 632.81 nm with a laser power equal to 1.75 mW. The instrument was operated in the multi-channel mode with the beam focused to a spot diameter of approximately 2 pm. 

Physicochemical properties of carbon materials are investigated by means of various spectroscopic techniques, such as infrared (IR), X-ray photoelectron pCPS), electro spin resonance (ESR), or Raman spectroscopy (RS). These techniques provide very useful qualitative information about the carbon surfaces. A detailed discussion of the procedures and instruments used in these techniques is outside the scope of this chapter a brief overview is presented, to highlight the importance of the use of spectroscopic techniques to illustrate the carbon surface functionalities and to compare the results that arise from a consortium of methods. 

Raman spectroscopy (RS) is a well known technique to detect the vibrational characteristics of molecules in various media and is therefore extensively used in physics chemistry and biologyGenerally this technique is easily implemented, and does not require sample preparation. In addition RS has the advantage that it can be applied in water solutions, in contrast to IR absorption. In a classical picture RS results from the inelastic interaction between a molecular system and the electromagnetic field of a laser source." The electronic polarizability is modulated by the vibration mode associated with the motion of the molecule, at a frequency (Raman shift) which is the difference (Stokes scattering) or the sum (anti-Stokes scattering) between the laser and the molecular frequencies. The induced dipole moment can be written as ... 

In developing and ophmizing new ES materials and components (electrode materials, electrolytes, and current collectors) based on their structures, morphologies, and performance, physical characterization using sophisticated instrument methods serves as the necessary approach. These instrumental methods are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Raman spectroscopy (RS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique. 

There are other modern spectroscopic methods such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), small angle neutron scattering (SANS), Raman spectroscopy (RS), electron spinning resonance (ESR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). These techniques are well known in the membrane field. Static secondary ion mass spectrometry (SSIMS), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), laser confocal scanning microscopy (FCSM) and environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) can also be added to new microscopic methods to characterize the membranes [84]. 

The aim of this chapter is to demonstrate the great potential that the Raman spectroscopic technique offers for environmental applications, particularly to aqueous systems. We demonstrate the benefits of the technique relative to other information-rich spectroscopic techniques, in light of the immense advances that have taken place in Raman instrumentation in the decade preceding this writing. Also, we provide our perspective on the current limitations of the technique and offer suggestions for potentially fruitful avenues of research and development for increasing the value of Raman spectroscopy (RS) for environmental applications. 

IR and Raman spectroscopy determine Crl by measuring the relative height of peaks. Nelson and O Connor proposed as IRCrl the ratio of the peaks height at 1425 cm" and 900 cm" (Nelson et al., 1964). The value of IR Crl for various samples can be from 1 to about 5. Raman spectroscopy (RS) uses as Crl the ratio of the peaks height at 380 cm and 1096 cm" (Agarwal et al., 2010). For various samples, RS Crl can vary from 0.2 to 0.8. Amorphized cellulose samples had lower Crl than crystalline samples. 

Raman spectroscopy (RS) Technique which involves the analysis of the intensity of Raman scattering of... 

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