Photovoltaic energy applications

Early studies of metal-CP interfaces, particularly Schottky barrier metal-CP diodes, were motivated primarily by possible applications in photovoltaic energy conversion. Work on trans-PA as of 1985 was reviewed by Kanicki [232]. Unfortunately, the photovoltaic yield of CPs never exceeded about 1%, so interest in that field subsided, and it will not be considered further here. A more recent review is given in Ref. 233. 

V. Fthenakis and E. Alsema, Photovoltaic energy payback times, greenhouse gas emissions and external costs, Progress in Photovoltaics Research and Applications 14 275-280 (2006). 

Aegerter M. A., Schmitt M. and Guo Y. (2002), Sol-gel niobium pentoxide coatings applications to photovoltaic energy conversion and electrochromism , Int. J. Photoenergy 4, 1-10. 

Most of the chapters in the third section are concerned with photovoltaic (PV) applications (conversion of light into electrical energy). Because of the diffuse nature of solar energy, the photovoltaic collection devices must be very large or else the light that strikes them must be concentrated. The first chapter in this section gives an overview of luminescent solar concentrators that can be used with the PV collectors. Most PV collectors or modules are multilayered systems containing a photovoltaic cell element. The next four chapters consider the use of various plastics as encapsulant or pottant materials in the PV modules. 

H. J. Hovel, Photovoltaic materials and devices for terrestrial solar energy applications, Solar Energy Mater. 2 (1980) 277-312. 

Figure 2.47. Map of stationary applications combining photovoltaic energy and hydrogen over the past 25 years. The dates supplied correspond to the year in which each project was begun [GAI11]...

Some stationary batteries are designed to cycle rather than float. For these applications the design criteria of the traction batteries are applicable (see Sec. 23.5.1). Applications of cycling stationary batteries include load leveling, utility peak-power shaving, and photovoltaic energy-storage systems. 

Another application of converting light to electricity is photovoltaic cells. This will be discnssed in Section 9.4.1.2 on solar energy applications. 

Ideally, all photons with a wavelength of about 900 nm or shorter should be harvested and converted to electric current. This limit is derived from thermodynamic considerations showing that the conversion efficiency of any single-junction photovoltaic solar converter peaks at approximately 33% near the threshold energy of lAeV.1 2 There are numerous ways to convert the solar radiation directly into electrical power or chemical fuel. The silicon solar cell is the most efficient in this respect. Nevertheless, the capital cost of such devices is not attractive for large-scale applications. 

This type of sensitizer opens up new avenues for improving the near-IR response of dye-sensitized solar cells. In addition, important applications can be foreseen for the development of photovoltaic windows transmitting part of the visible light. Such devices would remain transparent to the eye, while absorbing enough solar energy photons in the near IR to render efficiencies acceptable for practical applications. 

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