Nerve agents land mines

The use of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for trace explosive detection was first investigated during the late 1990s [48], Thereafter [49], SERS detection of 2,4-DNT vapor to 1 ppb was demonstrated. Within a year [50], a field-portable unit had demonstrated a limit of detection (LOD) of 5 ppb vapor DNT and the ability to locate buried land mines. More recently [51], nano-engineered SERS substrates have been employed, and ppb sensitivity for some nerve agent and explosive simulants has been demonstrated. Baker et al. [52] have published a review of the literature in 2005, focusing on SERS techniques and substrate development, for explosives detection. 

Fig. 2-51. The M23 VX land mine. Most of the interior was to be filled with the nerve agent VX. Photograph Chemical and Biological Defense Command Historical Research and Response Team, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md.

The United States began to produce sarin in the early 1950s, and VX in the early 1960s, for potential military use production continued for about a decade.6 The U.S. munitions inventory today contains these two nerve agents in 30- to 45-year-old M55 rockets land mines 105-mm, 155-mm, and 8-in. projectiles 500-lb and 750-lb bombs wet-eye bombs (one of a family of eye bombs, which has liquid chemical [wet] contents) spray tanks and bulk containers.9 These munitions are stored at six depots within the continental United States (CONUS) and one outside the continent the locations of these depots are public knowledge.10 The six CONUS depots are near Tooelle, Utah Umatilla, Oregon Anniston, Alabama Pine Bluff, Arkansas Newport, Indiana and Richmond, Kentucky the seventh depot is on Johnston Island in the Pacific Ocean. 

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