Methods to measure

In this paper we propose a method to measure (estimate) the attenuation in composites by means of PE measurements using a multivariable regression approach. 

Berkowitz J, Ellison G B and Gutman D 1994 Three methods to measure RFI bond energies J. Phys. Chem. 98 2744-65... 

When using the DIAL method to measure the concentration of a molecule with discrete absorption the wavelengths of the two laser beams, on and off a narrow absorption line, must be very similar (less than 1 nm separation) so that the background absorption and backscatter is the same for both. 

To check the terminal voltage and frequency Figure 16.28 suggests a simple method to measure the terminal voltage and the frequency / of the incoming machine ... 

Hicks, B. B., Wesely, M. L., and Durham, J. L., "Critique of Methods to Measure Dry DeposiHon—Workshop Summary," EPA-600/9-80-050. Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1980,... 

The most common method to measure the compatibility of resins with other substances is to dissolve both materials in a mutually compatible solvent, and to cast a film on a glass slide. After solvent evaporation, a compatible system gives a clear film, while incompatibility results in an opaque film. A more accurate procedure is to melt the resin and the substance under a phase microscope, and compatibility is observed on the film after cooling. 

Develop methods to measure the effectiveness of inherent safety efforts and to provide feedback to personnel to improve performance. 

Different methods to measure efficiency are described m Section 10.5.2. Alethods to visualize contaminants and airflow are described in Section 10.5.3. 

The simplest method to measure gas solubilities is what we will call the stoichiometric technique. It can be done either at constant pressure or with a constant volume of gas. For the constant pressure technique, a given mass of IL is brought into contact with the gas at a fixed pressure. The liquid is stirred vigorously to enhance mass transfer and to allow approach to equilibrium. The total volume of gas delivered to the system (minus the vapor space) is used to determine the solubility. If the experiments are performed at pressures sufficiently high that the ideal gas law does not apply, then accurate equations of state can be employed to convert the volume of gas into moles. For the constant volume technique, a loiown volume of gas is brought into contact with the stirred ionic liquid sample. Once equilibrium is reached, the pressure is noted, and the solubility is determined as before. The effect of temperature (and thus enthalpies and entropies) can be determined by repetition of the experiment at multiple temperatures. 

Bromine number (ASTM D-1159) and bromine index (ASTM D-2710) are qualitative methods to measure the reactive sites of a sample. Bromine reacts not only with olefm bonds, but also with basic nitrogen molecules and with some aromatic sulfur derivatives. Neverthele.ss. olefins are the most common reactive sites and the bromine number is used to indicate olefinicity of the feed. 

For full agonists, the approximation of the ECS0 as (5.10) affinity is not useful and other methods must be employed to estimate affinity. A method to measure the affinity of... 

Another method to measure the affinity of a partial agonist has been presented by Stephenson [7] and modified by Kaumann and Marano [8], The method of Stephenson compares equiactive concentrations of full agonist in the absence of and the presence of a concentration of partial agonist to estimate the affinity of the partial agonist. The following equation is used (see Section 6.8.8) ... 

Historically, Gaddum and colleagues [3] devised a method to measure the affinity of insurmountable antagonists based on a double reciprocal linear transformation. With this method, equiactive concentrations of agonist in the absence ([A]) and presence ([A ]) of a noncompetitive antagonist ([B]) are compared in a double reciprocal plot... 

As the quenching distance for flames propagating in different mixtures was often important for industrial applications, experimental methods to measure this quantity were developed. The most frequently used ones were... 

The combined experimental and theoretical investigation of Dixon et al. [75] applied the H-atom Rydberg time-of-flight method to measure the translational energy distribution of H atoms from the photodissociation... 

The antioxidant activities of carotenoids and other phytochemicals in the human body can be measured, or at least estimated, by a variety of techniques, in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo (Krinsky, 2001). Many studies describe the use of ex vivo methods to measure the oxidisability of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles after dietary intervention with carotene-rich foods. However, the difficulty with this approach is that complex plant foods usually also contain other carotenoids, ascorbate, flavonoids, and other compounds that have antioxidant activity, and it is difficult to attribute the results to any particular class of compounds. One study, in which subjects were given additional fruits and vegetables, demonstrated an increase in the resistance of LDL to oxidation (Hininger et al., 1997), but two other showed no effect (Chopra et al, 1996 van het Hof et al., 1999). These differing outcomes may have been due to systematic differences in the experimental protocols or in the populations studied (Krinsky, 2001), but the results do indicate the complexity of the problem, and the hazards of generalising too readily about the putative benefits of dietary antioxidants. 

A precursor of the studies on electron transfer reactions between short-lived radicals and colloidal particles was the development of a fast pulse radiolysis method to measure. the polarograms of radicals in the 10 s range . After considerable information had been acquired about the electron transfer reactions of a few dozen radicals at the mercury electrode, this compact electrode was replaced by metal colloids somewhat later, by semiconductor colloids These studies led to the detection of the electron-storing properties of certain colloids and of reactions of the stored electrons. 

Therefore a continued interest exists in the role of in oral absorption, which often is related to its effect on lipophilicity and solubility. Medicinal chemists can modulate these properties through structural modifications [47]. Various methods to measure pK values have been developed [47-50] and considerable databases are now available. 

P. C. Brookes, L. Landman, and D. S. Jenkin.son, Chloroform fumigation and the release of soil nitrogen a rapid extraction method to measure microbial biomass nitrogen in soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 17331 (1985). 

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