Lysine during Maillard reaction

R. Tressl, C. T. Piecchotta, D. Rewicki, and E. Krause, Modification of peptide lysine during Maillard reaction of D-glucose and D-lactose, in G, 2002, 203-209. 

Al-Abed Y and Bucala R (1995) N-carboxymethyllysine formation by direct addition of glyoxal to lysine during the Maillard reaction. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 5, 2161-2162. 

One of the earlier reviews (31 ) concerned the Maillard reaction in dried milk during storage. Spray-dried whey has considerable amounts of lactose and protein rich in lysine. Theoretical treatment of the problem in whey powder was the object of recent studies by Labuza and Saltmarch (106, 107). 

Milk-crumbs and soya-crumbs are new aroma sources produced by the Maillard reaction and intended to be used in the food industry. During the production of the crumbs thermal reactions take place in the material (e.g. milk) and the added glucose and amino acid constituents. Fructose-lysine and... 

J. Leclere and I. Birlouez-Aragon, The fluorescence of advanced Maillard products is a good indicator of lysine damage during the Maillard reaction, J. Agric. Food Chem.,... 

Figure 3-6 Loss of Lysine Occurring as a Result of Heating of Several Foods. Source From J. Adrian, The Maillard Reaction. IV. Study on the Behavior of Some Amino Acids During Roasting of Proteinaceous Foods, Ann. Nutr. Aliment. (French), Vol. 21, pp. 129-147, 1967.

Numerous undesirable reactions that result in organoleptic, nutritional and functional deterioration may occur in food proteins during processing and storage. These include the non-enzymatic or Maillard reactions, transamidation condensation reactions with dehydroalanine forming crosslinks, and carbonyl amine interactions, all of which may involve the free e-amino group of lysine (11,23). To minimize these reactions a significant volume of work has been done on the protective modification of the e-NH2 of lysine by formylation, acetylation, propionylation (26) or reductive dimethylation (10,11). 

With respect to the mixed findings on fortification of cereals with free lysine, attention was drawn by the 2002 WHO/FAO/UNU Expert Consultation (2007) to the issue of Maillard reactions between amino acids, especially lysine, and sugars that can occur during food processing. Maillard reactions adversely affect the bioavailability of amino acids. Lysine, as a free amino acid, is particularly susceptible to loss through the Maillard reaction (Ajandouz and Puigserver, 1999). 

Lactose is the main milk sugar, which reacts with whey proteins, leading to loss of lysine. This reaction (the Maillard reaction) is particularly intense during milk evaporation or drying (see Section 4.7.5.12.3). 

In the advanced and late "Maillard reaction" the furosine method is not valuable since the Amadori products lead to further compounds. Therefore the amount of available lysine in severely damaged foods is underestimated. In the case of fructose rich food (e.g. special diets for diabetics or products which are sweetened with honey or concentrated fruit juice) similar false conclusions are possible since glucoselysine which is formed from fructose during the "Maillard reaction" is not a precursor for furosine. 

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