Isotopes and Their Measurement

LEAD ISOTOPES AND THEIR MEASUREMENT 3.1. Stable Isotopes 

While this fingerprinting approach is growing in popularity [51], many lead ores and coal bodies have overlapping signatures, and interpretations of predominant source areas are not always unequivocal [52]. A further caveat involves emissions of atmospheric Pb from mixtures of Pb ores. For example, secondary Pb smelters today process scrap Pb from the most diverse sources. Even during 

Thermal ion mass spectrometry has traditionally been the method of choice to obtain precise Pb isotope determinations, with a typical RSD of 0.01% (2o) for the Pb/ ° Pb ratio. Moreover, TIMS allows precise measurement of all four Pb isotopes, especially with the double or triple spike techniques [54], allowing the radiogenic ones ( b, ° Pb, ° Pb) to be normalized to Pb which is non-radiogenic. Also, to distinguish among anthropogenic Pb sources, it can be 

Recently, it has been shown that Pb isotope ratios in environmental samples can be measured with acceptable accuracy and precision using ICP-SMS [55,56]. 

This approach is rapid (no chemical separation of Pb is required) and reasonably accurate and precise. For example, Krachler et al. [57] have reported precisions of 0.1% for the ° Pb/ Pb and Pb/ ° Pb ratios at total Pb concentrations of only 0.1 xg/L in real world samples. 

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