Indole acid-catalyzed polymerization

Indole Grignard reagents, 10, 43 Indoles, acid-catalyzed polymerization, 2, 287... 

Indole undergoes add-catalyzed dimerization the 3H-indoIium ion acts as an electrophile and attacks an unprotonated molecule to give the dimer (46). Protonation of the dimer in turn gives an electrophilic species from which a trimeric product can be derived (77CPB3122). Af-Methylisoindole undergoes acid-catalyzed polymerization, indicating that protonation at C-1 gives a reactive electrophilic intermediate. 

Indole can be nitrated with benzoyl nitrate at low temperatures to give 3-nitroindole. More vigorous conditions can be used for the nitration of 2-methylindole because of its resistance to acid-catalyzed polymerization. In nitric acid alone it is converted into the 3-nitro derivative, but in a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids 2-methyl-5-nitroindole (47) is formed. In sulfuric acid, 2-methylindole is completely protonated. Thus it is probable that it is the conjugate acid which is undergoing nitration. 3,3-Dialkyl-3H-indolium salts similarly nitrate at the 5-position. The para directing ability of the immonium group in a benzenoid context is illustrated by the para nitration of the conjugate acid of benzylideneaniline (48). 

The Acid-Catalyzed Polymerization of Pyrroles and Indoles G. F. Smith... 

Indolizine is much more basic than indole (p Ta = 3.9 vs. —3.5), and the stability of the cation makes it less reactive and resistant to acid-catalyzed polymerization. Protonation occurs at C-3, although 3-methylindolizine protonates also at C-l. Introduction of methyl groups raises the basicity of indolizines. Electrophilic substitutions such as acylation, Vilsmeyer formylation, and diazo-coupling all take place at C-3. Nitration of 2-methylindolizine under mild conditions results in substitution at C-3, but under strongly acidic conditions it takes place at C-l, presumably via attack on the indolizinium cation. However, the nitration of indolizines often can provoke oxidation processes. 

The susceptibility of pyrroles to acid-catalyzed polymerization is a distinct disadvantage in the catalytic hydrogenation of pyrroles in acidic media and, similarly, the oligomerization of indoles by acids can also be a problem under such hydrogenation conditions. 

Vinylpyrroles and vinylindoles are extremely sensitive to acid-catalyzed dimerization and polymerization and it is significant that much of the early research was conducted on systems which were produced in situ. Even by this approach, the dimerization of, for example, 2-(3-indolyl)propene and l-(3-indolyl)-l-phenylethylene was difficult to prevent (see the formation of 110 and 120, Section 3.05.1.2.8). Similarly, although it is possible to isolate ethyl 2-(2- and 3-indolyl)propenoates, they appear to be extremely unstable at room temperature even in the absence of acid (81UP30500) to give [ 4 + 2] cycloadducts of the type (348) (cf. 77JCS(P1)1204>. For many years simple vinylpyrroles also eluded isolation, on account of their facile acid-catalyzed polymerization. Application of the Wittig reaction, however, permits the synthesis of vinyl-pyrroles and -indoles under relatively mild and neutral conditions (see Section 3.05.2.5). In contrast, heteroarylvinyl ketones, esters, nitriles and nitro compounds, obtained by condensation of the appropriate activated methylene compound with the heteroaryl aldehydes (see Section 3.05.2.5), are thermally stable and... 

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