Independent convergent evolution

With convergent evolution, successful solutions arise independently in different animal lines separated in time and place. The reason for the similarity of solutions is clear Animals encounter similar environmental problems and cope with them in a similar way because that solution is an efficient one. These universal solutions will be found on other planets with life. 

Pupo, G.M., Lan, R., Reeves, P.R. Multiple independent origins of Shigella clones of Escherichia coli and convergent evolution of many of their characteristics. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97 (2000) 10567-10572. 

Sho arose completely independently of PrP, perhaps at an earlier stage in evolution [10], and perhaps also completely independently of ZIPs. Accord-ingly, present-day similarities would be the result of convergent evolution. 

Accordingly, the cytochrome oxidases are the product of a divergent evolution from the common precursor of the cytochrome oxidases and N20 reductase. The only convergent evolution found in cytochrome oxidases is the common structure shared with N20 reductase concerning the independent insertion of a copper center in these dissimilar enzymes. 

Current data suggest that cellulose biosynthesis is a bacterial invention and that eukaryotes acquired the process via multiple lateral gene transfers. Bacteria and eukaryota have independently evolved regulatory mechanisms and molecular structures to utilize the p-1,4-homopolymer synthesized by the catalytic activity of homologous cellulose synthase enzymes. The differences in accessory enzymes probably reflect not only convergent evolution to produce a cellulose I crystalline allomorph, but also inventions of alternative products such as cellulose II, noncrystalline cellulose, or nematic ordered cellulose. 

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