In fluorescence and phosphorescence

Figure 2.6 Energy transitions in fluorescent and phosphorescent molecules...

B Hu, Y Wu, Z Zhang, S Dai, and J Shen, Effects of ferromagnetic nanowires on singlet and triplet exciton fractions in fluorescent and phosphorescent organic semiconductors, Appl. Phys. Lett., 88 022114, 2006. 

Figure 6.95 Schematic diagram of transitions between electronic energy levels involved in fluorescence and phosphorescence. Reprinted, by permission, from D. A. Skoog and D. M. West, Principles of Instrumental Analysis, 2nd ed., p. 282. Copyright 1980 by Saunders College.

Optical and laser technologies also offer the prospect for improvements in fluorescence and phosphorescence determinations. An important development is the use of fluorescence and phosphorescence with optical fiber sensors. 

Ohnesorge, W.E. Fluorescence of Metal Chelate Compounds. In Fluorescence and Phosphorescence Analysis, D, M. Hercules (Editor), New York Interscience 1966. 

Unfortunately, the extreme sensitivity to environmental effects makes detailed interpretation of fluorescence changes difficult, particularly when several tyrosine and tryptophan residues are present. For example, Pjura et al (1993) reported that large changes in fluorescence and phosphorescence caused by perturbation of a tryptophanyl residue were not always correlated with the three-dimensional structure, stability and solvation properties of mutants of T4 lysozyme. Increases in polar relaxation about the excited state of tryptophan could result from only small increases in local dynamics or solvent exposure. 

Complexation-induced Changes in Fluorescence and Phosphorescence Energy Transfer Light Harvesters Ion Sensing Conclusion... 

CL-based analytical methods have several advantages such as rapidity, specificity and cost-effectiveness one minor disadvantage is that they require semi-skilled personnel. There is no requirement for an excitation source as in fluorescence and phosphorescence, a monochromator (often not even a filter), or the use of radioactive or hazardous chemicals. Thus, CL is advantageous for routine analysis. 

Born-Oppenheimer approximation is also valid. Otherwise, the phenomenon of vibronic coupling arises, which gives rise to other approximations (the term vibronic should be reserved to solutions obtained in non-Born-Oppenheimer cases, although is frequently used improperly). From the calculation of transition dipole moments, radiative lifetimes can also be obtained, both in fluorescence and phosphorescence by using the Einstein coefficients (A21) and the Strickler-Berg relationships (Strickler and Berg 1962) ... 

---