Energy-sudden methods

The idea behind the rapid heating of a DEP is to achieve evaporation faster than thermal degradation of the sample. [50,51] This principle is realized in perfection with energy-sudden methods (Chaps. 9, 10). 

The desorption of ions and neutrals into the vacuum upon irradiation of a laser pulse proceeds as a jet-like supersonic expansion [39] a small, but initially hot and very rapidly expanding plume is generated [15,52]. The description of MALDI as an energy-sudden method [42] nicely expresses the explosive character of the plume formed by the nanosecond laser pulse. As the expansion is adiabatic, the process is accompanied by fast cooling of the plume [39]. 

In the ESA-CSA method [26] the energy sudden approximation (ESA) is applied to the entrance reaction channel and the CSA to the exit channel. This technique gives considerable computational simplications compared to the CC and CSA methods, although retaining a good accuracy as the results of Section 4 show. 

Static and dynamic property The uses of these foams or porous solids are used in a variety of applications such as energy absorbers in addition to buoyant products. Properties of these materials such as a compressive constitutive law or equation of state is needed in the calculation of the dynamic response of the material to suddenly applied loads. Static testing to provide such data is appealing because of its simplicity, however, the importance of rate effects cannot be determined by this one method alone. Therefore, additional but numerically limited elevated strain-rate tests must be run for this purpose. 

In the semiclassical centrifugal sudden (SCS) approximation some additional simplifications were made, which permit us to estimate the scattering phase by Eq. (5.50). Therefore the accuracy of SCS has to be checked separately. Fortunately, for the Ar-N2 system some cross-sections were calculated by the BFCP method [200] as well as by the CC method [206], which is considered to be the best. Using the same potential as in [209] the SCS cross-sections were found in [191] for fixed total energy of collisions E. The results are compared in Table 5.1. 

The exploding wire method involves putting a large amount of energy into a wire suddenly, causing it to explode. If 02 is present, a metal oxide aerosol is produced, whereas particles of pure metal are formed in an inert atmosphere such as helium. Exploding wire generators and their size distribution characteristics have been discussed by Phalen (1972). 

While batteries and fuel cells used to be the subject of a chapter in electrochemical books, the decision of the Daimler-Benz company in 1997 to develop fuel cells for the electric drive in their cars brought the fuel cell into clear focus the battery suddenly took second place to environmentally friendly cars. The fuel cell directly converts the energy of chemical reactions to electricity and without moving parts, in contrast to the two-stage method of our present way of obtaining electricity (heat to mechanical work and mechanical work to a generator). Batteries store electricity produced elsewhere, and make it instantly available when a circuit is closed. They have their own market independently of whether they will be used in any automotive applications. 

So far, we have fairly extensively discussed the general aspects of static and dynamic relaxation of core holes. We have also discussed in detail methods for calculating the selfenergy (E). Knowing the self-energy, we know the spectral density of states function A (E) (Eq. (10)) which describes the X-ray photoelectron spectrum (XPS) in the sudden limit of very high photoelectron kinetic energy (Eq. (6)). We will now present numerical results for i(E) and Aj(E) and compare these with experimental XPS spectra and we will find many situations where atomic core holes behave in very unconventional ways. 

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