Common prior assumption

Uncertainty about the valuations of the bidders is captured assuming that types are independent draws from a common distribution that is commonly known. This is the common prior assumption. Let fi be the probability that a bidder has type U. 

The unsatisfactory feature of this setup is the common prior assumption. It is difficult to believe that the auctioneer and the bidders can express their beliefs about others valuations probabilistically, let alone agree upon that belief. It (or something like it) is unavoidable. If the values that bidders have for the object are unknown to the auctioneer, then that uncertainty must be modeled. If the auction is such that how a bidder behaves depends on how she thinks... 

Stephen Morris. The common prior assumption in economic theory. Economics and Philosophy, 11 227-253, 1995. 

All too often, an overly simplistic view is taken of the role that spray gun design (namely, brand of gun, and features of the fluid nozzles and air caps used) can play in achieving good, and reproducible, coated tablet quality. The fact that spray gun design may differ (from laboratory to production setting) is often considered to have little relevance, and accommodations for such differences are routinely made based on prior experience and, often, instinct, without benefit of reference to scientific data. A commonly held assumption, therefore, is that guns made by one manufacturer are... 

The formula of Doisy s vitamin K has been modified to CttHetOs (II). Contrary to prior assumption its side chain consists of an odd number, seven, of isoprene units (7 X 5 = 35 C-atoms). It is interesting to note that in this side chain of vitamin K we have the first observed example in nature of a structural part containing a high number of isoprene units all linked together in the normal head-to-tail sequence. Recent research would indicate that this building principle is a very common one. 

One of the main motivations of using synthetic DNA for cellular engineering seems to be at odds with the random nature of directed evolution. Traditionally, PCR-based methods have been used to create sequence diversity, inspired by the fact that mutations in nature commonly arise from errors in DNA replication. PCR-based methods are preferred when there is no prior knowledge about where mutations are likely to influence the traits of interest, but are limited in that the sequence diversity that results is restricted and biased. With single base mutations per codon - a common assumption with most protocols - only 5.7 amino acids are accessible per position on average, and in most cases, the resulting set of amino acids does not accurately represent the spectrum of physicochemical properties of naturally-occurring residues [76]. 

The present evidence on these points comes from published work (8)of Moodie, Schofield and their group at the University of Exeter. They have studied the nitration of pseudocumene and have shown that there is about a 9 1 selectivity of attack on positions 5 and 6 provided that one makes the reasonable assumption that any ipso-attack is not followed by rearrangement under the chosen conditions. Both positions are reactive enough to achieve the limiting rate and have similar steric requirements. This deduction rules out the explanation in terms of early transition states of the positionally oriented type and also precludes the possibility of detectable positionally oriented intermediates prior to the Wheland intermediates. It means that there must be a common intermediate prior to Wheland intermediate formation, but the extent of intramolecular selectivity is certainly not sufficient to make it necessary to postulate any attractive interaction in this intermediate. 

The common assumption of the prior studies fi-om various attitudinal perspectives is that decisions under risks are driven by inconsistent perceptions, beliefs, and emotions. However, they aU share two major limitations (a) no presence of fine-grained degrees of uncertainties and (b) lack of focus on the online phishing risks and e-commerce consumer decision making. 

It emerges that the notion that element 72 was not a rare earth was the commonly held view among a number of chemists. Element 72, or at least the vacant space that it was supposed to fill, was often placed beyond the rare earth block in published periodic tables prior to Bohr s theory, for example, by Bury. In fact, the prediction that hafnium is not a rare earth element can be obtained quite simply by counting and is by no means dependent on assuming the existence of electron shells. This can be illustrated as follows It had been known for some time that the number of elements in each period follows a definite sequence given by 2,8,8,18, 18, 32 (probably followed by 32), and so on. By adding the first six of these numbers, one arrives at the conclusion that the sixth period terminates with a noble gas of atomic number 86. It is a simple matter to work backward from this number to discover that element 72 should be a transition metal and a homologue of zirconium, which shows a valence of 4. This procedure depends on the plausible assumption that the third transition series should consist of 10 elements, as do the first and second transition series ... 

The first step in the analysis of copolymer crystallization is the development of quantitative concepts that are based on equilibrium considerations. Subsequently, deviations from equilibrium and a discussion of real systems will be undertaken. Problems involving the crystallization and melting of copolymers cannot in general be uniquely formulated since two phases and at least two species are involved. The disposition of the species among the phases needs to be specified. It cannot be established a priori by theory. This restraint is not unique to polymeric systems. It is a common experience in analyzing similar problems that involve monomeric components.(2) Thus, in the development of any equilibrium theory a decision has to be made prior to undertaking any analysis of the disposition of the co-units between the phases. Theoretical expectations can then be developed based on the assumptions made. 

Models and explanations are always dependent from the point of view as well as the motivation of their creators. Since scientific work should be hypothesis driven, we are used to be confronted with causative models, only. Ideally, the hypothesis is stated prior to the experiment which is designed to verify the assumptions. Applying QSAR we postpone formulation of the hypothesis to a time well after the experiment has been carried out. We will thus find the hypothesis that explains best the observations. But what if an obviously causative model has implications that are in contrast to common sense Sies authored the famous statistics that was able to correlate birth rates to the number of breeding storks. The first error in his model is obvious There is no direct causative relationship between storks and babies. The same statistics might have looked more convincing if... 

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