Characters artificial

Natural lightweight aggregates (LWA) are mostly obtained from volcanic rocks and their application is of local character. Artificial aggregates are produced in several countries for three main reasons ... 

Mercury compounds (for example mercury(II) chloride) are used in medicine because of their antiseptic character. The artificial red mercury(Il) sulphide is the artist s vermilion . Mercury(II) sulphate is a catalyst in the manufacture of ethanal from ethyne ... 

The artificially obtained terpin, prepared as described below, has the follow ing characters —... 

A terpene yielding isofenchyl alcohol on hydration, which Wallach considers to be one of the fenchenes, was artificially prepared by converting nopinone into a hydroxy ester by means of bromoacetic ester and zinc-dust. The hydroxy ester is dehydrated by potassium bisulphate, and so yields an unsaturated ester, which on saponification yields an acid from which the terpene results by distillation. This fenchene has the following characters —... 

Two isomeric alcohols, known as vetivenol, also exist in the oil. By treatment with phosphorus pentachloride this mixture of alcohols is converted into a chloride, or mixture of chlorides, which on reduction yields an artificial vetivene, having the following characters —... 

It can be obtained artificially by treating sabinene or thujene with dilute sulphuric acid, when the resulting alcohol is optically inactive. The natural alcohol, isolated from juniper berry oil, has the following characters —... 

The above-described compound is known as terpinenol-4 in accordance with recognised nomenclature. A body known as terpinenol-1 is present to a small extent in the artificially prepared commercial terpinenol. This body has the following characters —... 

The best method for producing it artificially is to condense salicylic acid and methyl alcohol by means of sulphuric acid. It is a colourless oil, optically inactive, and possessing an intense wintergreen odour. It has the following characters —... 

Bornyl Acetate.—The acetic acid ester is the most important of the series. It is a constituent of pine-needle and rosemary oils, and has a most fragrant and refreshing odour. It is prepared artificially by the action of acetic anhydride on borneol, in the presence of sodium acetate, or by the condensation of borneol with glacial acetic acid in the presence of a small amount of a mineral acid. It is absolutely necessary in the reproduction of any pine odour. It is a crystalline body, crystallising from peDroleum ether in rhombic hemihedric crystals melting at 29°. The optical activity depends on that of the borneol from which it has been prepared. It has the following characters —... 

Having substituted into (10) the identity of artificial character... 

Sections II to IV have been mainly about various aspects of chemical bonding on the theoretical level. Bonding considerations of this kind easily acquire an abstract, speculative character if not related to concrete experimental data. It seems somewhat artificial to extend this paper by a comprehensive discussion of particular examples, which in any case will be the subject of a series of forthcoming papers. However, this article cannot be terminated without a brief survey of the relation between the different bonding parameters and experiments in general. This task can unfortunately only be undertaken on a rather superficial level. 

The most commonly used techniques for estimating trees for sequences may be grouped into three categories (1) distance methods, (2) maximum parsimony, and (3) maximum likelihood based methods. There are other methods but they are not widely used. Further, each of these categories covers many variations and even distinct methods with different properties and assumptions. These methods have often been divided different ways (different from the three categories here) such as cladistic versus phenetic, character-based versus non-character-based, method-based versus criterion-based, and others. These divisions may merely reflect particular predjudices by the person making them and can be artificial. 

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