Atoms early physics experiments

The development of fast ion beam laser spectroscopy techniques (for short FIBLAS) is not so unusual a case of simultaneous but independent technical evolution both in atomic and molecular physics. Although the concepts involved in both cases were quite similar, the apparatus used in the pioneering experiments were widely different, ranging from the table top mass spectrometer for the early molecular physics work to the largest tandem Van de Graaff accelerators for some of the atomic physics experiments. ... 

Until the advent of modem physical methods for surface studies and computer control of experiments, our knowledge of electrode processes was derived mostly from electrochemical measurements (Chapter 12). By clever use of these measurements, together with electrocapillary studies, it was possible to derive considerable information on processes in the inner Helmholtz plane. Other important tools were the use of radioactive isotopes to study adsorption processes and the derivation of mechanisms for hydrogen evolution from isotope separation factors. Early on, extensive use was made of optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) in the study of electrocrystallization of metals. In the past 30 years enormous progress has been made in the development and application of new physical methods for study of electrode processes at the molecular and atomic level. 

Atoms consist of electrons and protons in equal numbers and, in all cases except the hydrogen atom, some number of neutrons. Electrons and protons have equal but opposite charges, but greatly different masses. The mass of a proton is 1.67 X 10 24 grams. In atoms that have many electrons, the electrons are not all held with the same energy later we will discuss the shell stmcture of electrons in atoms. At this point, we see that the early experiments in atomic physics have provided a general view of the structures of atoms. 

Warren, W. S. (2000). The Physical Basis of Chemistry, 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. Chapter 5 presents the results of some early experiments in atomic physics. 

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